Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida): COSEWIC assessment and status report 2019

Official title: COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida) in Canada 2019

Committee on the status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC)
Préoccupante 2019

COSEWIC assessment summary

Assessment Summary – November 2019

Common name: Ringed Seal

Scientific name: Pusa hispida

Status: Special Concern

Reason for designation: This small seal needs sea ice to thrive. It is wide-ranging and is the most abundant marine mammal in the Canadian Arctic. It is an important species for Inuit and is the primary prey of Polar Bear. Its population levels and trends are uncertain, although the total population is about 2 million individuals. Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge from local communities across the species’ range suggests that its population status varies regionally, but is generally considered stable. Reductions in the area and duration of sea ice due to climate warming in the Canadian Arctic, with consequent reductions in suitable pupping habitat due to loss of stable ice and a lower spring snow depth, are the primary threats to this species. The Canadian population is predicted to decline over the next three generations, and may become Threatened due to extensive and ongoing changes in sea ice and snow cover in a rapidly warming Arctic.

Occurrence: Manitoba, Ontario, Québec, Newfoundland and Labrador, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Pacific Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean

Status history: Designated Not at Risk in April 1989. Status re-examined and designated Special Concern in November 2019.

COSEWIC executive summary

Ringed Seal
Pusa hispida

Wildlife Species Description and Significance

Ringed Seal is a phocid seal with five subspecies, one of which occurs in Canada: Arctic Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida hispida). They are one of the smallest pinnipeds, with average adults being 1.5 m long and weighing 70 kg—males being slightly larger than females. Ringed Seal is important both economically and culturally to northern peoples and are important prey for the Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus).

Distribution

Ringed Seal has a circumpolar distribution over Arctic and subarctic waters, relying on sea ice as habitat. Their Canadian distribution ranges from Yukon in the west to southern Labrador in the east, with occasional sightings of vagrants south of the seasonal ice zone in both Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

Habitat

Ringed Seal is strongly ice-adapted. Their habitat requirements follow the annual cryogenic cycle, with adults establishing territories during fall freeze-up. Prime breeding habitats occur on stable ice, which tends to be landfast ice occurring over relatively shallow waters (< 150 m). Breeding also occurs on mobile pack ice. Ringed Seal moults on sea ice in late spring and is widely distributed over waters of varying depths during the open-water season, presumably in response to prey distribution. Ringed Seal can be negatively affected by both extreme heavy-ice years (longer ice seasons) and extreme low-ice years (short spring ice seasons).

Biology

The Ringed Seal mating system is thought to be one of weak polygyny, but observations suggest that alternative strategies exist depending on region. Gestation (10–11 months) is divided into ~2–3 months of embryonic diapause and ~8 months of fetal growth. Pups are born in spring, in subnivean birth lairs, and are nursed for 5–8 weeks. Females mate near the end of lactation or directly after. Age at maturity is variable, but is 6 years on average, with males entering the breeding population later than females. Maximum life span has been recorded at 45 years, but average adult life span is likely about 20 years.

During the open-water season, they feed on a wide variety of pelagic and benthic prey to build up blubber reserves. The most common prey across their range are pelagic schooling fish such as Arctic Cod (Boreogadus saida), Sand Lance (Ammodytes spp.) and Capelin (Mallotus villosus), as well as amphipods, euphausiids, shrimp and other crustaceans.

Individual movements are variable across the range and are dictated by prey distribution. Movements can be extensive during the open-water season, and likely consist of both seasonal migrations and dispersal events for subadults. At freeze-up, when adults move into breeding areas and establish territories, subadults are either driven out or choose areas of mobile ice and polynyas where the costs of maintaining breathing holes are lower. Adults have been shown to exhibit breeding site fidelity.

Ringed Seal is the primary prey for the Polar Bear but is also preyed upon by Killer Whales (Orcinus orca), Walruses (Odobenus rosmarus), Greenland Sharks (Somniosus microcephalus), and humans. The Arctic Fox (Vulpes lagopus) can also be important predators on pups, particularly when snow cover is very low.

Population Sizes and Trends

Most information on Ringed Seal population size comes from aerial surveys, which are conducted when seals are hauled out on ice to moult. Because these surveys are sporadic and localized, estimates are uncertain and dated. However, species abundance is thought to be high, with an estimated 2.3 million seals (1.15 million mature individuals) in Canada and adjacent waters (West Greenland, Alaska, Russian Federation).

Threats and limiting factors

The Arctic has undergone substantial climatic change since the late 1970s: annual, perennial, and multi-year Arctic sea ice extent, as well as Arctic sea ice thickness and volume, have decreased while the Arctic ice-free season has lengthened. Over the 1967-2012 period, Northern Hemisphere snow cover extent also decreased in all months and especially during spring. For ice-dependent Arctic marine mammals such as Ringed Seal, these extensive unidirectional changes in sea ice and snow cover can equate to habitat loss and cascading ecological impacts. For example, a very warm year in 2010 resulted in poor Ringed Seal body condition in Hudson Bay. Seals experienced increased stress, giving birth to fewer pups in the following years. In the long term, the loss of habitat due to climate change poses the most significant threat. Decreases in sea ice extent also increase opportunities for commercial shipping, tourism and industrial development, which could increase disturbance, habitat modification and pollutants. Predation by the Polar Bear is the most significant mortality source. Hunting by humans may also be a limiting factor, but removal rates are likely an order of magnitude lower than those for Polar Bear. Pollutant levels are variable amongst regions, with some levels of increase having known effects on Polar Bear but unknown effects on seals.

Protection, Status and Ranks

There are no international agreements or conventions specifically intended to protect Ringed Seal, but the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears and their Habitat provides some measure of protection. Ringed Seal is not listed on any appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, and they are “Least Concern” on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (as both species and Arctic subspecies). They are ranked “N5B, N5N, N5M” in the latest Wild Species (General Status) Report (CESCC 2016). COSEWIC assessed the species as Special Concern in November 2019; it was previously assessed as “Not at Risk” in 1989, and they are currently not listed under the Species at Risk Act. The Arctic subspecies is listed as threatened under the United States Endangered Species Act. Ringed Seal is ranked as Least Concern in Greenland, Vulnerable in Norway (Svalbard), and is not listed in Russia.

In Canada, Ringed Seal is managed under the authority of the Marine Mammal Regulations (SOR/93-56) of the Fisheries Act. Seal hunting in marine waters of the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik and Labrador are co-managed by various wildlife management boards, with scientific advice from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Existing national parks, national wildlife areas and other lands owned and managed by the Government of Canada afford little habitat protection. Existing and proposed marine protected areas and national marine conservation areas potentially afford some protection.

Technical summary

Pusa hispida

Ringed Seal

Phoque annelé

Netsik, netsuk

Range of occurrence in Canada: Manitoba, Ontario, Québec, New Brunswick (occasional), Nova Scotia (occasional), Prince Edward Island (occasional), Newfoundland and Labrador, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Pacific Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean

Quantitative Analysis
Is the probability of extinction in the wild at least [20% within 20 years or 5 generations, or 10% within 100 years]? Unknown; data for quantitative analysis lacking

Threats (direct, from highest impact to least, as per IUCN Threats Calculator)

Was a threats calculator completed for this species? Yes

i. High impact threat – Habitat loss caused by human-induced climate change

ii. Negligible impact threats – Energy production and mining, Transportation and service corridors, Biological resource use, Natural systems modifications

Limiting factors – Predation

Data Sensitive Species

Is this a data sensitive species? No

Status History

COSEWIC: Designated Not at Risk in April 1989. Status re-examined and designated Special Concern in November 2019.

Status and Reasons for Designation:

Status: Special Concern

Alpha-numeric codes: Not applicable

Reasons for designation: This small seal needs sea ice to thrive. It is wide-ranging and is the most abundant marine mammal in the Canadian Arctic. It is an important species for Inuit and is the primary prey of Polar Bear. Its population levels and trends are uncertain, although the total population is about 2 million individuals. Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge from local communities across the species’ range suggests that its population status varies regionally, but is generally considered stable. Reductions in the area and duration of sea ice due to climate warming in the Canadian Arctic, with consequent reductions in suitable pupping habitat due to loss of stable ice and a lower spring snow depth, are the primary threats to this species. The Canadian population is predicted to decline over the next three generations, and may become Threatened due to extensive and ongoing changes in sea ice and snow cover in a rapidly warming Arctic.

Applicability of Criteria

Criterion A (Decline in Total Number of Mature Individuals): Not applicable. Population is likely near 2.3 million individuals. A decline is projected due to loss of suitable habitat in three generations but there remains uncertainty over the actual population response which negates a quantification of that decline.

Criterion B (Small Distribution Range and Decline or Fluctuation): Not applicable. Range greatly exceeds thresholds; population is not fragmented and does not undergo extreme fluctuations. Decline is projected in quality of habitat.

Criterion C (Small and Declining Number of Mature Individuals): Not applicable. A continuing decline is projected, and the population exists as one subpopulation but likely near 1.15 million mature individuals.

Criterion D (Very Small or Restricted Population): Not applicable. Population size and range exceed thresholds.

Criterion E (Quantitative Analysis): Not applicable.

Preface

Canadian Ringed Seal populations were last assessed by COSEWIC as Not at Risk in April 1989 (Kingsley 1990). Much has been learned about Ringed Seal biology since they were last assessed, but there remain large gaps in our knowledge of the species.

Although Ringed Seal is now placed in a different genus than it was in the last assessment, this has more to do with the taxonomy of Grey Seals than a change that would have implications for the assessment process. Several population genetics studies reveal an overall pattern of isolation by distance, but none suggests that multiple designatable units are present.

Challenges in surveying Ringed Seal remain because they are difficult to detect in water during summer and may be hidden under sea ice and snow in winter. Aerial surveys are timed for the spring, when much of the population is hauled out on the ice to moult. The percentage of animals hauled out at any one time changes over the season and fluctuates during the day based on weather conditions—leading to uncertainty in seal estimates for most areas. This challenge, coupled with the very large range over which Ringed Seal is found, means that only a very small portion of their range has been surveyed and even less of their range is surveyed on a regular basis. These factors have led to the generation of a conservative estimate of population size (2.3 million) and very few areas with data to determine trend.

Community-based harvest monitoring has shown large fluctuations in pup production over time, relating to both exceptionally heavy and light ice years (shorter or longer open-water seasons). This connection between ice and snow conditions and Ringed Seal productivity is problematic because reductions in ice extent and ice cover duration, as well as increased ice mobility, are current trends being observed. Additional changes in the timing and amount of precipitation may be having, or will have, significant effects on Ringed Seal habitat. Currently, there are no strong indications that Ringed Seal numbers are declining in Canada, except in western Hudson Bay where estimated numbers have been declining since the 1990s, but surveys are increasingly difficult to undertake due to changing environmental conditions (e.g., early break-up and increased fog).

Ringed Seal is ubiquitous in the Arctic and subarctic, where they are economically and culturally important for northern peoples and are the major prey of Polar Bear. Climate change-induced habitat loss will significantly impact distribution and numbers. For this reason, other jurisdictions outside Canada have listed Ringed Seal as a species at risk.

Detailed reviews are available for Ringed Seal (e.g., Reeves 1998; Kelly et al. 2010a; Kovacs 2014; Lowry 2016) and for the Arctic subspecies (e.g., Kingsley 1990; Boveng 2016a).

COSEWIC history

The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) was created in 1977 as a result of a recommendation at the Federal-Provincial Wildlife Conference held in 1976. It arose from the need for a single, official, scientifically sound, national listing of wildlife species at risk. In 1978, COSEWIC designated its first species and produced its first list of Canadian species at risk. Species designated at meetings of the full committee are added to the list. On June 5, 2003, the Species at Risk Act (SARA) was proclaimed. SARA establishes COSEWIC as an advisory body ensuring that species will continue to be assessed under a rigorous and independent scientific process.

COSEWIC mandate

The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) assesses the national status of wild species, subspecies, varieties, or other designatable units that are considered to be at risk in Canada. Designations are made on native species for the following taxonomic groups: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, arthropods, molluscs, vascular plants, mosses, and lichens.

COSEWIC membership

COSEWIC comprises members from each provincial and territorial government wildlife agency, four federal entities (Canadian Wildlife Service, Parks Canada Agency, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, and the Federal Biodiversity Information Partnership, chaired by the Canadian Museum of Nature), three non-government science members and the co-chairs of the species specialist subcommittees and the Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge subcommittee. The Committee meets to consider status reports on candidate species.

Definitions (2019)

Wildlife species

A species, subspecies, variety, or geographically or genetically distinct population of animal, plant or other organism, other than a bacterium or virus, that is wild by nature and is either native to Canada or has extended its range into Canada without human intervention and has been present in Canada for at least 50 years.

Extinct (X)

A wildlife species that no longer exists.

Extirpated (XT)

A wildlife species no longer existing in the wild in Canada, but occurring elsewhere.

Endangered (E)

A wildlife species facing imminent extirpation or extinction.

Threatened (T)

A wildlife species likely to become endangered if limiting factors are not reversed.

Special concern (SC)
(Note: Formerly described as “Vulnerable” from 1990 to 1999, or “Rare” prior to 1990.)

A wildlife species that may become a threatened or an endangered species because of a combination of biological characteristics and identified threats.

Not at risk (NAR)
(Note: Formerly described as “Not In Any Category”, or “No Designation Required.”)

A wildlife species that has been evaluated and found to be not at risk of extinction given the current circumstances.

Data deficient (DD)
(Note: Formerly described as “Indeterminate” from 1994 to 1999 or “ISIBD” [insufficient scientific information on which to base a designation] prior to 1994. Definition of the [DD] category revised in 2006.)

A category that applies when the available information is insufficient (a) to resolve a species’ eligibility for assessment or (b) to permit an assessment of the species’ risk of extinction.

The Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment and Climate Change Canada, provides full administrative and financial support to the COSEWIC Secretariat.

Wildlife species description and significance

Name and classification

Ringed Seal, Pusa hispida (Schreber, 1775) (Class: Mammalia, Order: Carnivora, Family: Phocidae, Subfamily: Phocinae), is a small earless (phocid) seal found throughout the Arctic and subarctic. Five subspecies are recognized, one of which, P. h. hispida, occurs in Canada (Rice 1998; Committee on Taxonomy 2014; Boveng 2016a; Lowry 2016). Common names for the species include the following: Ringed Seal, Arctic Ringed Seal, jar seal, fiord seal and common seal (English); phoque annelé and phoque marbré (French); Netsik (Inuit/Labrador); Nattiq (Inuit/North and East Baffin); Natiinat (Inuit); Natchiq, Natchiit and Natik (Inuit/North Slope); Natsiq/Natsik (Inuit/Nunavik and Nunavut); Natseq (Western Greenland); Ringsæl or netside (Danish); Norppa (Finnish); Ringsel (Norwegian); Ладожская нерпа (Russian); and Vikare (Swedish).

Ringed Seal is named in English and French for the ringed pattern that is visible on their coats.

The genus name for Ringed Seal has shifted back and forth between Pusa and Phoca in recent decades, with Pusa generally in favour at the current time (e.g., Rice 1998; Committee on Taxonomy 2014). Much of the debate has revolved around difficulties in reconciling molecular and morphological relationships between the Grey Seal (Halichoerus grypus) and Phoca/Pusa species (Rice 1998; Committee on Taxonomy 2014; Boveng 2016a; Lowry 2016). Several recent studies have grouped Halichoerus as a sister species to Pusa caspica (Caspian Seal) (i.e., a paraphyletic Pusa genus) (e.g., Árnason et al. 2006; Higdon et al. 2007; Nyakatura and Bininda-Emonds 2012), but other studies (e.g., Fulton and Strobeck 2010) have resolved Halichoerus as sister to the remaining members of the Phoca/Pusa species complex. The nomenclature for the species name (hispida) for the Arctic Ringed Seal has been widely accepted (Rice 1998; Boveng 2016a; Lowry 2016).

Throughout this document, unless otherwise indicated, Ringed Seal refers to Arctic Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida hispida).

Morphological description

Ringed Seal is one of the smallest true (or earless) seals, with typical adult body sizes of roughly 1.5 m in length and 70 kg in weight (Kelly et al. 2010a). At birth, Ringed Seal is about 60-65 cm in length and 4.5-5.0 kg in weight, with some variation between study areas (e.g., McLaren 1958a; Smith and Stirling 1975; Lydersen et al. 1992). Ringed Seal pups grow quickly, reaching four times their birth weight at weaning (Hammill and Smith 1991; Lydersen et al. 1992), and then lose weight for several months after weaning (Smith 1987). There is some slight sexual dimorphism. McLaren (1958a) sampled 24 one-year-old seals from the Canadian Arctic, reporting average lengths of 103 cm and 94 cm for males and females, respectively, which is longer than one-year-old seals measured in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas (Frost and Lowry 1981).

Ringed Seal is dimorphic in pelage, with light and dark phases (McLaren 1966; Kelly 1981). Light-phase seals have a dark grey saddle with superimposed light rings and lightly coloured lateral and ventral surfaces, while dark-phase seals have a dark background with light rings overall (Kelly et al. 2010a). Head and flippers (fore and hind) are generally dark grey to black (Rice 1998).

Pups are born with a natal coat of white hair (lanugo), which is shed after 4-6 weeks before the pup is weaned. First-year animals are uniformly silver grey with faint rings (the “silver jar” of the fur trade) (McLaren 1958a; Smith and Taylor 1977), which become more obvious with age.

Population spatial structure and variability

Ringed Seal is distributed throughout the circumpolar Arctic and subarctic, where there is seasonal sea ice habitat. Throughout their range, several subspecies have been identified (see Taxonomy ), with the Arctic subspecies being the most broadly distributed and abundant.

Several studies have examined the population genetic structure of Ringed Seal using neutral nuclear microsatellite markers (Palo et al. 2001; Davis et al. 2008; Petersen 2008; Nyman et al. 2014; Hudson 2016) or using both mitochondrial and nuclear markers (Martinez-Bakker et al. 2013). These studies have included relatively few sample sites that are widely dispersed over the range. Current studies also use different combinations of microsatellite markers; therefore, differentiation is reported here in general terms rather than specific F_ST values. Measures of genetic differentiation are affected by the number and types of genetic markers used; thus, most studies are not directly comparable. However, all population genetic studies are broadly concordant in finding low levels of genetic differentiation across the entire range (Palo et al. 2001; Davis et al. 2008; Martinez-Bakker et al. 2013).

Palo et al. (2001) compared three locations, none within Canada, and found weak differentiation between Svalbard and the Baltic Sea. Similarly, when Davis et al. (2008) compared eight sites, including four in Canadian waters, they found little genetic differentiation over most of the range. Although samples from the White Sea on the northwest coast of Russia showed a low but significant F_ST difference compared to other sites, STRUCTURE (Pritchard et al. 2000) analysis (a Bayesian individual-based, rather than location-based analysis) failed to detect population structure (Davis et al. 2008).

Martinez-Bakker et al. (2013) noted that samples should ideally be taken during the breeding season to detect population structure because of the high mobility and movement patterns of Ringed Seal during the open-water season. When they examined samples from 11 sites across the range, including four Canadian sites in the Eastern Beaufort Sea, they observed high gene flow (low differentiation) among breeding locations and no differentiation among Eastern Beaufort Sea samples. When examining Ringed Seal from 12 communities in the Eastern Canadian Arctic, Petersen (2008) found low levels of genetic differentiation and no population genetic structure. Moreover, Hudson (2016) found no significant differentiation among 17 Canadian sites.

Sampling for population genetics has not been uniform across Ringed Seal’s Canadian or global range. Available samples tend to be collected near communities as part of community-based harvest monitoring (Petersen 2008), which leaves large portions of the Arctic unsampled. However, given that Ringed Seal have high genetic diversity, high mobility and long generation times, there is little expectation that gene flow is disrupted across the range (Petersen et al. 2010). Several papers with samples at various scales have also not detected high differentiation (Palo et al. 2001; Davis et al. 2008; Petersen 2008; Martinez-Bakker et al. 2013; Hudson 2016). This suggests that despite the gaps in sampling it is unlikely that genetic structure has gone undetected in the Canadian Arctic.

Designatable units

Designatable units can be defined within a species in Canada if there are recognized subspecies or varieties or if there is an argument for discrete units that are evolutionarily significant (COSEWIC 2014). To date, there is no evidence to suggest that Ringed Seal in Canada should be assessed as more than one designatable unit. A number of additional subspecies have been suggested in the past for Canada, including P. h. beaufortiana in the Beaufort Sea and P. h. soperi in Foxe Basin and on the west coast of Baffin Island (Anderson 1946; Hall and Kelson 1959; Amano et al. 2002). However, none of these has been further supported, and all are considered synonymous with P. h. hispida (Frost and Lowry 1981; Rice 1998; Amano et al. 2002).

Some authors have considered regions separately and thus implied some level of management unit division (Reeves 1998). For example, McLaren (1962) treated different Hudson Bay Trading posts independently in his analyses. In practice, Ringed Seal in the Western Arctic (NWT and Yukon) have been treated separately from the Eastern Arctic and Hudson Bay (Nunavut) but this is less of a management strategy and more a logistic one; monitoring methods are similar between regions (Ferguson pers. comm. 2017). Yurkowski et al. (2016a) compiled telemetry data from Ringed Seal throughout the Canadian Arctic, noting a westward movement of animals tagged in the Amundsen Gulf towards the Chukchi Sea and an eastward movement of seals tagged from Resolute Bay to Baffin Bay. However, Hudson (2016) did not detect significant genetic differentiation between Ringed Seal sampled in Ulukhaktok, the Northwest Territories (NWT) and Hudson Bay. Similarly, Beaufort Sea, Svalbard and Baltic Sea samples were not significantly differentiated (Martinez-Bakker et al. 2013).

Finley et al. (1983) suggested a reproductively isolated population of Ringed Seal inhabiting the pack ice of Baffin Bay. They observed morphological differences (pack ice seals were smaller) and gut parasite differences (pack ice seals had lower parasite loads) but could not genetically differentiate the two populations using isozymes (Finley et al. 1983). Although they noted that some differences could be due to differences in diet (i.e., a fish-based diet could lead to high parasite loads), they still proposed the offshore Baffin Bay area as a separate population. Inuit in Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea have also identified physical differences between Ringed Seal in coastal versus pack ice regions (e.g., Williamson 1997; Rosing-Asvid 2010). Although there has been no subsequent study in this area, western Arctic research examining the distribution of Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) predation on Ringed Seal suggests that competition for landfast ice habitat may force smaller adults to breed in offshore sub-optimal habitat (Pilfold et al. 2014).

There have been suggestions that differences in morphology, as well as clinal variations in size (i.e., larger seals at higher latitudes; Soper 1944, McLaren 1958a), could warrant population status (Fedoseev 1975; Finley et al. 1983). However, these differences are not supported by patterns of genetic differentiation at neutral genetic loci (Petersen 2008; Hudson 2016) and may be the result of differing areas having a longer duration of spring stable ice (McLaren 1958a) or higher productivity (Yurkowski et al. 2016c). Shorter nursing times may result in smaller animals at weaning, as well as smaller adults (McLaren 1958a).

Inland populations of Ringed Seal have been noted in Nettilling Lake (Baffin Island, Nunavut) and Lake Melville (Labrador, Newfoundland and Labrador) (Reeves 1998), but there are no genetic data to evaluate whether they represent unique populations. Overall, given the current state of information about Ringed Seal populations, there is no evidence to indicate that those in Canada should be assessed as more than one designatable unit.

Special significance

Ringed Seal is a very important food source for Inuit and their dogs, although their use as a source of fuel (oil) and clothing (furs) has declined (Kingsley 1990).

Seal pelts are still an important source of income for Inuit harvesters throughout the Canadian Arctic and subarctic. Seal hunting remains an important socio-economic activity (McLaren 1958b; Wenzel 1987; Pelly 2001; Furgal et al. 2002) even though sales of pelts to the Government of Nunavut Department of Environment’s Fur and Seal Program have declined (Ghazal pers. comm. 2017).

Ringed Seal is also the primary food source for Polar Bear, and access to seals is of critical importance to bear populations (Stirling and Archibald 1977; Smith 1980; Stirling and Derocher 1993) (see Interspecific interactions ). Ringed Seal is highly adapted to life in the Arctic marine environment (e.g., using breathing holes and snow lairs) (Smith and Stirling 1975; Smith 1976; Lydersen and Smith 1989) (see Physiology and adaptability ), and are considered an important indicator species for climate change effects (Laidre et al. 2008; Kovacs 2014) (see Threats and limiting factors ).

Distribution

Global range

Ringed Seal has a circumpolar distribution (Figure 1, from Kelly et al. 2010a) and are strongly ice associated throughout their range. Maximal winter sea-ice cover in the Arctic roughly defines the global range of Ringed Seal, although vagrants are sometimes observed farther south where sea ice does not occur (e.g., Sable Island and Gulf of Maine; Lucas and McAlpine 2002; Waring et al. 2004). The following countries have Ringed Seal in their territorial waters: Canada, Greenland, Norway, Russia, United States of America and the Baltic Sea states. They occur in the Bering, Chukchi, Beaufort, Barents, White, Kara, Laptev and East Siberian seas, as well as the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Davis Strait, Baffin Bay and Labrador Sea (Boveng 2016a), in addition to occupying some lake and river systems in Canada.

Figure 1. Global range of the five Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida) subspecies, data from Kelly et al. (2010a). Only one subspecies, P. h. hispida (Arctic Ringed Seal), occurs in Canadian waters (map projection: North Pole Stereographic).

Canadian range

Ringed Seal is widely distributed in Arctic and subarctic Canada, ranging from the Yukon North Slope (and into Alaska and Russia as a contiguous population) in the west and south and east to southern Labrador (Figure 2, from Kelly et al. 2010a). Their distribution ranges throughout the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada’s Arctic Islands, and into Greenland waters in eastern Baffin Bay and Davis Strait.

Figure 2. Geographic range of Ringed Seal (P. hispida hispida subspecies) in Canadian waters and adjacent areas. Ringed Seal is also found along the northern coastline of Newfoundland, and sporadic records exist for the other Atlantic provinces, but breeding range is limited by the availability of sea ice for pupping. Dotted black line shows limits of Canada’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Data from Kelly et al. (2010a) (map projection: Canada Lambert Conformal Conic).

Numerous surveys have been conducted in relatively small study areas, but it is difficult to extrapolate to regional-scale estimates. There are also no estimates available for Ringed Seal abundance along the Labrador coast (although local Inuit reported that the population was increasing in the mid-1990s, chiefly due to a decline in harvesting, Williamson 1997). It must also be noted that much of the information used to generate the total population estimate is dated; however, the sources used, and alternate sources and estimates, are discussed below for each region. A total population of 2.3 million Ringed Seal translates to 1,150,000 mature individuals, assuming 50% adults as per the IUCN assessment (Boveng 2016a).

Baffin bay region population estimates

Surveys in 1979 covered northeast Baffin Island landfast ice and Baffin Bay pack ice habitats (Finley et al. 1983). More than 67,000 seals were estimated for the landfast ice areas, with another 417,000 in the Baffin Bay pack ice. The estimate was corrected to a total of 787,000 seals in Baffin Bay (Canada and Greenland) once seals missed during the surveys were accounted for (Finley et al. 1983). Miller et al. (1982) reported on surveys of West Greenland landfast ice that were also conducted in 1979, estimating 97,800 Ringed Seal for that region of eastern Baffin Bay. They also estimated an additional 15,500 seals in the landfast ice along the east coast of Devon Island and north to 80° latitude (Miller et al. 1982).

Kelly et al. (2010a) used the estimate of 787,000 by Finley (1983) as the only comprehensive estimate available for the region, and they considered the relative consistency of Greenland harvests over time (Kapel and Rosing-Asvid 1996) to provide some confidence that the population has not significantly changed. Laidre et al. (2015) also used the 1979 estimate of 787,000 seals in Baffin Bay (Finley et al. 1983) in their assessment but considered the trend to be unknown.

Kingsley (1998) estimated the size of the Baffin Bay Ringed Seal population using two methods, one based on Polar Bear energetic models and another using published density data and estimates of ice areas. He used linked models of Polar Bear growth and energy needs, Polar Bear population structure and Ringed Seal energetic yield to estimate that a standing population of 1.2 million Ringed Seal would be needed to sustain Polar Bear predation levels and a human harvest of 100,000 seals per year (and assuming that the entire population is accessible to harvest/predation; the standing population would be higher if it was partly inaccessible). The estimate based on sea ice type and availability and estimated Ringed Seal density was 697,200 hauled out (“sightable”) seals, which would yield a similar population estimate as the Polar Bear predation model (1.2 million seals) (Kingsley 1998).

Hudson Bay region population estimates

The earliest population estimate for Ringed Seal in this region was 218,300 in the 1950s, based on density estimates in different types of landfast ice and the amounts of those ice types available (McLaren 1958b). In 1974, Smith (1975) conducted aerial surveys throughout much of western Hudson Bay. Flight tracks were categorized by ice type, and survey densities were extrapolated to the entire region based on the distribution of ice types, resulting in an estimate (rounded to the nearest 1,000) of 455,000 Ringed Seal in Hudson Bay. This estimate was much larger than the 1950s estimate, but Smith (1975) included pack ice habitats in his calculations, which McLaren (1958b) did not. Smith (1975) estimated an additional 61,000 seals in James Bay, and considered this to probably be an underestimate due to the advanced break-up of the ice at the time of the survey and subsequent low density estimates. Laidre et al. (2015) used this combined estimate of 516,000 seals in Hudson and James bays in 1974 (Smith 1975) in their assessment, with an unknown trend.

More recent aerial survey estimates are available, but they are limited to western Hudson Bay and have generally reported on hauled-out abundance (a population index, and not a population estimate). Young et al. (2015) report on data from systematic aerial strip transect surveys flown in western Hudson Bay in late May to early June of 1995-1997, 1999, 2000, 2007-2010 and 2013 (also see Lunn et al. (1997) and Chambellant et al. (2012)). Each survey attempted to replicate the same 10 transects from the Hudson Bay shoreline in the west to the 89° W longitude line in the east, and from Churchill, Manitoba in the south to Arviat, Nunavut in the north—a study area originally designed by Lunn et al. (1997) to cover the winter and spring hunting habitat of the Western Hudson Bay Polar Bear population (Stirling and Derocher 1993). The density of hauled out Ringed Seal ranged from 1.22 seals/km² in 1995 (population index = 104,162 seals) to 0.20 seals/km² in 2013 (population index = 16,746 seals). Density estimates varied significantly and followed a cyclical pattern with the exception of 2013 (Young et al. 2015; Ferguson et al. 2017). There was an overall negative trend over time, but a multiple linear regression weighted by survey effort showed no significant trend in density. The authors suggested that the low density estimate in 2013 might indicate that population changes unrelated to a natural cycle are taking place (Young et al. 2015).

Ferguson et al. (2017) compared environmental patterns to Ringed Seal reproduction, body condition, recruitment and stress in Hudson Bay from 2003 to 2013, linking longer open-water periods to decreased body condition and increased stress (cortisol). During this period, the year 2010 was the earliest spring break-up and the latest ice formation in Hudson Bay, which coincided with high cortisol levels and declines in reproductive rates. Ferguson et al. (2017) concluded that while negative demographic responses were gradually occurring with sea ice declines in Hudson Bay, an episodic environmental event had likely played a significant role in a punctuated decline in Ringed Seal abundance.

Ringed Seal is also found throughout Foxe Basin, north of Hudson Bay. McLaren (1958b) also estimated the number of seals in this region (ca. 100,000 seals), using the same methods described above, but no recent data are available except some limited industry-sponsored surveys (e.g., BIMC 2012). No Foxe Basin abundance estimates are reported here.

Beaufort and chukchi seas population estimates

Most population assessments in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas are confined to Canadian and U.S. waters, and there are few data for animals in the Russian sector (Kelly et al. 2010a). Surveys were conducted in 2012 and 2013 but have not been fully analyzed (Conn et al. 2014; Muto et al. 2017). Based on aerial surveys in 1985-1987, Frost (1985) derived estimates of 250,000 Ringed Seal in the Alaskan landfast ice of the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas, with a total of 1-1.5 million when seals in pack ice habitats were included. The most recent Bering Sea estimate is 170,000 seals (Conn et al. 2014).

In western Canadian Arctic waters, surveys in some areas were first flown in the early 1970s (Smith 1987), and extensive surveys were flown in the early 1980s (Kingsley and Lunn 1983). The 1981 and 1982 surveys of the eastern Beaufort and Amundsen Gulf regions were the most comprehensive. Kingsley and Lunn (1983) estimated the number of hauled-out Ringed Seal in the eastern Beaufort at 5,400-5,500 and the number in Amundsen Gulf as 30,900 in 1981 and 70,500 in 1982. This wide interannual variability is similar to other regions (e.g., western Hudson Bay; Lunn et al. 1997) and highlights the need for a better understanding of the relationships between Ringed Seal behaviour, environmental conditions and survey methods (Kelly et al. 2010a). Surveys in the southern Canadian Beaufort Sea have revealed decadal-scale fluctuations in Ringed Seal abundance (Stirling et al. 1977, 1982; Smith 1987; Harwood and Stirling 1992), and it is suggested that these changes mainly relate to environmental variation, particularly changes in the sea ice regime (Stirling et al. 1977; Smith 1987).

Kelly et al. (2010a) summarized the available data (e.g., Frost et al. 2004; Bengtson et al. 2005) for the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas in their status assessment, and they considered a “reasonable estimate” for the total population to be 1,000,000 seals (not assigned to any particular year(s)), including at least 50,000 in Canadian waters (eastern Beaufort Sea and Amundsen Gulf). Laidre et al. (2015) used the Kelly et al. (2010a) estimate in their summary, with an unknown population trend. Hammill (2009) suggested total of 1-1.5 million seals for Alaska.

Fluctuations and trends

There are no data available for a wide-ranging population assessment, and there is insufficient information on trends at the level of the designatable unit (i.e., the entire range in Canada and adjacent areas) and limited data at the regional (or smaller) level. This adds substantial uncertainty to any status assessment. For example, Kelly et al. (2010a) assumed that seal numbers in Baffin Bay were stable because Greenland harvests have remained relatively consistent over time, but this assumption has not been tested. Surveys for Ringed Seal abundance generally occur at smaller spatial scales than the regions discussed above, and it is difficult to extrapolate results to larger regions (see Abundance ). Surveys in the southern Beaufort Sea (Stirling et al. 1977, 1982; Smith 1987; Harwood and Stirling 1992) and western Hudson Bay (Young et al. 2015) have revealed decadal-scale fluctuations in Ringed Seal abundance that are thought to be related to environmental variation, particularly changes in the sea ice regime (Stirling et al. 1977; Smith 1987; Ferguson et al. 2017). In western Hudson Bay, there has been an overall negative trend in density over time, but the decline is not statistically significant.

Some harvesters believe seals are travelling to places where there are better ice conditions, but that their numbers have not declined (e.g., Slavik 2013). Hunters in Alaska have described some local reductions in seal abundance due to changing ice conditions, but they note that Ringed Seal remains abundant and that the overall population is stable (Voorhees et al. 2014; Huntington et al. 2016, 2017). The degree of interchange between these seals and those in western Canadian waters is unknown.

Inuit in the central Arctic community of Gjoa Haven, Nunavut have indicated that the population of Ringed Seal in the area is healthy (Keith et al. 2005; Government of Nunavut 2012). In Taloyoak, Nunavut, hunter observations have been variable and contradictory, with some saying Ringed Seal numbers have decreased over time and others suggesting they have increased over time (Government of Nunavut 2015). Hunters in Grise Fiord, Nunavut have observed a decrease in the number of Ringed Seal in their area (Government of Nunavut 2013). Baffin Bay harvesters who were interviewed about Polar Bear provided little information on Ringed Seal abundance, with one Qikiqtarjuaq, Nunavut interviewee saying that changing ice conditions were making it harder for bears to find seals, but noting that the seal population was unchanged (Dowsley 2005, 2007). Pangnirtung, Nunavut Inuit have reported seeing fewer Ringed Seal in Cumberland Sound, noting a suspicion that this is related to increased human activities and noise pollution in addition to increased predation from a growing Polar Bear population (Government of Nunavut 2014). Some Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge holders in southern Davis Strait reported that seal numbers were low from 2005 to 2010, and that a larger proportion of seals were adults, possibly due to climate change impacts on pups (Kotierk 2010). Hunters in Chesterfield Inlet, Nunavut (western Hudson Bay) have reported that Ringed Seal is decreasing in number (Government of Nunavut 2010). Overall, there are reports of declines in some areas, but information is not available across the entire species range. It is also unknown whether local changes represent declines or distribution shifts with sea ice changes (Slavik 2013).

Ringed Seal recruitment and abundance are related to both ice and snow conditions (Harwood et al. 2000, 2012b; Ferguson et al. 2005; Iacozza and Ferguson 2014; see Habitat ). Environmental extremes, including both heavy-ice years and years with early break-up, can have negative demographic effects (Harwood et al. 2012b; Ferguson et al. 2017). Arctic sea ice has changed significantly in the last 30 years and there has been an increase in the length of the open-water season, due to both earlier spring break-up and later fall freeze-up (Parkinson and Cavalieri 2002; Gagnon and Gough 2005; Parkinson 2014; Laidre et al. 2015). Snow cover on sea ice is a critical component of pupping habitat (Smith and Stirling 1975; Lydersen and Smith 1989; Kelly and Quakenbush 1990; Smith and Lydersen 1991). Spring snow depth has been declining in western Hudson Bay, with negative impacts on Ringed Seal (Ferguson et al. 2005). Models predict continued declines in spring snow depth, with direct effects on Ringed Seal recruitment (Hezel et al. 2012; Iacozza and Ferguson 2014).

Rescue effect

Ringed Seal has a high dispersal ability (see Dispersal and migration ), and genetic analysis has not identified major constrictions to gene flow across their circumpolar range (see Population spatial structure and variability ). As such, the Canadian Ringed Seal population is fully connected to Ringed Seal in other Arctic regions (e.g., western Greenland/ eastern Baffin Bay, Alaskan and Russian Beaufort/Chukchi Seas) that could provide immigrants adapted to live in Canadian waters.

Threats and limiting factors

Threats

Direct threats faced by Ringed Seal assessed in this report were organized and evaluated based on the IUCN-CMP (World Conservation Union-Conservation Measures Partnership) unified threats classification system (Master et al. 2012). Threats were defined as the proximate activities or processes that directly and negatively impact Ringed Seal. These were assessed for the one DU, with results on the impact, scope, severity, and timing presented in tabular form in Appendix 1.

The overall calculated and assigned threat impact is High to Low. The greatest potential anthropogenic threat to Ringed Seal is projected habitat loss due to climate change. The other threats of Energy Production & Mining, Transportation & Service Corridors, and Biological Resource Use were considered negligible.

Climate change & severe weather [iucn threats #11.1 – habitat shifting & alteration] – high to low

Although some benefits (e.g., shifts from multi-year to annual ice in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago) may occur in the short-term and in some areas, loss of habitat due to climate change is a major threat in the medium (next three generations) to long term for Ringed Seal. Estimates of the time until an ice-free summer occurs in the Arctic vary, but this could occur as early as 2020-2050 (Serreze et al. 2007; Overland and Wang 2013) and significant ice reductions in southern areas of the range could occur much sooner (Castro de la Guardia et al. 2013). A study on the demography of Ringed Seal in Amundsen Gulf and Prince Albert Sound projected declines in Ringed Seal population size in all but the most optimistic climate change scenarios (Reimer et al. 2019).

Loss in snow cover is expected to increase susceptibility of Ringed Seal to predation (NOAA 2012). Loss of sea ice could have direct effects on Ringed Seal populations by reducing pup survival, increasing the energetic costs of moulting and reducing haul-out sites important for resting (see Habitat ). Where sea ice loss causes the ice to retreat over deep, unproductive waters, Ringed Seal travels farther, dives longer and spends less time hauled out on ice—suggesting that they are expending more energy to forage than in the past (Hamilton et al. 2015). Indirect effects include shifts in ecosystem composition and function (see Habitat ), access by novel predators and competitors (see Interspecific interactions ) and increased anthropogenic activity.

Inuvialuit harvesters indicate that Ringed Seal needs the type of environmental conditions that are good for ice algae accumulation, because Arctic cod feed on the algae and seals eat the cod (Joint Secretariat 2015). New scientific research supports these observations and shows that ice algae are a critical component of the Arctic marine food web through all trophic levels (Brown et al. 2018). Therefore, not only will declines in sea ice reduce physical habitats for Ringed Seal, but it will also potentially lead to changes in the supply of energy through the system.

Acidification

Warming ocean waters and higher atmospheric CO₂ levels will cause increased acidification of the oceans (summarized in Kelly et al. 2010a). The effects of acidification are expected to be most significant in lower trophic levels, where they can affect the ability of some zooplankton to form calcium carbonate shells (Orr et al. 2005). Acidification may also affect the physiology of marine invertebrates and fish (Pörtner et al. 2004; Pörtner 2008). Recent rates of change in acidity have been 100 times faster than in the last 100,000 years (Raven et al. 2005). It is expected that these changes could have indirect effects on Ringed Seal if the ecosystem is restructured due to acidification (Kelly et al. 2010a).

Acidification has secondary impacts because a lowered pH reduces the absorption of low frequency sound (Brewer and Hester 2009). This will make the oceans noisier in the same range of frequencies important for some marine mammals. Although Ringed Seal is not thought to use sound to communicate in the same manner as other seals (e.g., Bearded Seals) and whales, increasing acoustic noise in the marine environment may have other unknown effects such as masking the approach of predators.

Invasive & other problematic species & genes (iucn threats #8.2 [problematic native species/diseases], 8.6 [diseases of unknown cause]) – unknown

Disease

Ringed Seal has co‐evolved with a variety of parasites and diseases. Information on pathologies is limited (Tryland et al. 1999), but some new information has become available in recent years. Antibodies for the morbillivirus phocine distemper virus (PDV) (Cosby et al. 1988), which is antigenically related to canine distemper (Liess et al. 1989), were found in Ringed Seal in eastern Canada in the 1980s and across Arctic Canada in the early 1990s (Osterhaus et al. 1988). The prevalence was highest in areas of the eastern Canadian Arctic, where Ringed Seal was sympatric with Harp Seal (Duignan et al. 1997), which have been implicated in a PDV epizootic in Harbour Seal populations in western Europe in 1998 (Heide-Jørgensen et al. 1992b). Overall, prevalence of PDV has been higher than expected in Ringed Seal considering their solitary and territorial behaviour, although transmission could occur among subadults aggregating in sub-optimal breeding habitat (Duignan et al. 1997).

The number of tumours reported in marine mammals has increased, including the first case of adenocarcinoma of the small intestine in Pinnipedia, which was reported for an 11-year old Ringed Seal in Hudson Bay (Mikaelian et al. 2001). This increase, however, may be more of an indication of the number of animals and pathogens being investigated than of actual prevalence. The same can be said for parasites. However, some potential expansions have been confirmed by Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge, such as the increase in the frequency of liver abnormalities Inuit hunters reported in their Ringed Seal catches in Admiralty Inlet, Nunavut (Furgal et al. 2002). The small white nodules and lesions may have been caused by an infection by a trematode, which had been previously reported in the livers and gall bladders of Ringed Seal (Dawes 1956), but the reason for the increased prevalence is unclear. An Inuit hunter from Clyde River also recently reported that the livers of some seals did not appear healthy (Dowsley 2005, 2007).

Since 2011, a novel ulcerative dermatitis disease has been reported in Ringed Seal from Northern Alaska (Stimmelmayr in Kovacs 2014). The disease is characterized by a variety of lesions on the eyes, snout, hind flippers, tail and trunk of all age classes. Affected individuals are lethargic and unusually approachable and have an increased tendency to haul out on land (Huntington et al. 2016, 2017). Inuvialuit hunters have also found dead seals on beaches, and with similar symptoms, in the Canadian Beaufort Sea (Joint Secretariat 2015). The disease appears to impact the lungs, liver and immune system, and results in some mortality (Kovacs 2014). Hunters in Davis Strait, Baffin Bay and eastern Hudson Bay have also observed hair loss in Ringed Seal (Dowsley 2005, 2007; Kotierk 2010; Government of Nunavut 2011). Nunavik hunters have expressed concern about the health of Ringed Seal in Hudson Bay, Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait, with observations of sick seals and changes in condition (seals sinking instead of floating) (Nunavik Marine Regional Wildlife Board, unpublished data).

Intracellular pathogens from the genus Brucella have also been detected in Ringed Seal. Forbes et al. (2000) were the first to find this organism in an individual from Pangnirtung in 1995, and this was the first confirmed case of brucellosis in marine mammals from Canada. Nielsen et al. (1996) found anti-Brucella antibodies in Ringed Seal through a serological survey of marine mammals from the Canadian Arctic. Although some hosts are asymptomatic, Brucellosis infections have been associated with placentitis/abortions, neonatal mortality, meningoencephalitis, abscesses and other syndromes in marine mammals. The Brucella bacteria is likely transmitted to Ringed Seal from enzootically infected animals such as the Arctic Fox (Nielsen et al. 1996, 2001; Tryland et al. 1999). In one study, the infection in true seals sampled in Alaska seems to be relatively common yet shown to be transient and decreasing with increasing age for Harbour Seal, becoming virtually absent at the age of sexual maturity. Similar patterns were present also for the other true seal species including Ringed Seal; however, firm conclusions could not be made due to sample size (Nymo et al. 2018). Quakenbush tested Ringed Seal sampled in Alaska between 2003 and 2014 and reported that 4 of 93 (4.3%) tested positive (Quakenbush 2015).

Ringed Seal is also an intermediate host of one of the most common parasites in the world (Tenter et al. 2000), the coccidian parasite Toxoplasma gondii, which is a cause of encephalitis in marine mammals (Dubey et al. 2003). In the first large-scale study of T. gondii in the Canadian Arctic, Simon et al. (2011) found that prevalence in Ringed Seal ranged from 2.4% in Chesterfield Inlet, to 5.8–7.9% in Ulukhaktok, Tuktoyaktuk, Sachs Harbour and Sanikiluaq, to 15.6% in Arviat and 23.1% in the Hall Beach area. They also found year-to-year variation in prevalence and reported that seroprevalence did not increase continuously with age (Simon et al. 2011). This latter pattern did not appear to be linked to morbidity or mortality rates of T. gondii infection (Gajadher et al. 2004), transplacental transmission (Miller et al. 2008; Dubey 2010) or spontaneous clearing of infection from adults (Gajadher et al. 2004; Dubey 2010), and the authors concluded that it likely indicates that Ringed Seal becomes infected at a young age (Simon et al. 2011). The behaviour(s) that subject young seals to higher rates of infection remains unclear, but diet likely plays a role (Born et al. 2004; Robertson 2007; Massie et al. 2010; Vincent-Chambellant 2010).

Wild and domestic felids are the only known definitive hosts of T. gondii (Measures et al. 2004; Dubey 2010), which appears to be transferred to marine environments via oocysts in surface run-off (Conrad et al. 2005; Miller et al. 2008). Fecal contamination of marine environments by terrestrial mammals is also a problem for other protozoan parasites such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium (Appelbee et al. 2005; Miller et al. 2010). Cysts from Giardia were found in Ringed Seal in the Ulukhaktok area of the Northwest Territories in 1997 (Olsen et al. 1997), which appears to be the first report of this infection in marine mammals. These seals were also tested for Cryptosporidium but were negative, although infections have been found in other Ringed Seal (Hughes-Hanks et al. 2005). Transmission from terrestrial and marine mammals could also be occurring with Neospora canium, the antibodies for which were first reported in Ringed Seal in Alaska, but the mode of transmission is unclear (Kovacs 2014).

The most abundant parasites hosted by Ringed Seal are helminths of the gut tract (Johansen et al. 2010), including nematodes that create some damage to the tissue of their intermediate and definitive hosts. Ringed Seal is often infected by anisakids, the adult and larval stages of which live in the gastric and intestinal parts of the digestive tract. Common species include Contacaecum osculatum, which is morphologically indistinguishable from another anisakid worm, its sister species Pseudoterranova decipiens (McClelland 1980; Brattey and Stenson 1993). P. bulbosa, a nematode previously only recorded in Bearded Seal, was also recently found, along with C. osculatum, in the stomach of a Ringed Seal in Arviat, Nunavut (Karpiej et al, 2014). Ringed Seal appears to be the definitive host for C. osculatum and P. decipiens, based on evidence of adult specimens in the stomachs of Ringed Seal from Arviat (Soltysiak et al. 2013). Both species have been associated with ulcerous gastric lesions and inflammation in the stomach (McClelland 1980), where the degree of pathological changes appears to be determined by proportion of each species, size of infection and host diet and immunity (Soltysiak et al. 2013).

The nematode Trichinella nativia has been found in Ringed Seal at low prevalences (Forbes 2000). A lower prevalence in Ringed Seal compared to Polar Bear, Walrus, and Arctic Fox could be because cannibalism is a primary means of infection for these hosts and Ringed Seal is only infrequently exposed to infected carcasses (Forbes 2000).

Ringed Seal is also host for three genera of lung nematodes: Otostrongylus sp., Dipetalonema sp. (Delyamure 1955) and Parafilaroides sp. (Delyamure and Alexiev 1966), two of which have been reported in Ringed Seal in the Amundsen Gulf. There, Parafilaroides hispidus caused no significant lesions but O. circumlitus caused extensive mucous production, mucosal hyperplasia, peribronchitis and endarteritis, mainly in young of the year, 28% of which had concurrent infections (Onderka 1989). The prevalence of the nematode is similar in the eastern Arctic (Bergeron et al. 1997), and it could also be impacting diving abilities, and ultimately survival (Bergeron et al. 1997; Gosselin et al. 1998). The heartworm Acanthocheilonema spirocauda (Measures et al. 1997) also infects Ringed Seal, particularly when they are young.

Pollution (IUCN Threats #9.1 [domestic & urban waste water], 9.2 [industrial and military effluents], 9.3 [agricultural and forestry effluents], 9.4 [garbage & solid waste], 9.5 [air-borne pollutants]) – unknown

Much of the work on pollutants and contaminants in Ringed Seal relate to human health concerns for northern people who consume marine mammals; secondarily, some research has also focused on the implications for Polar Bear and possible population effects of contaminants (Zhu et al. 1995; Dietz et al. 1998; Muir et al. 1999; Fisk et al. 2005; Letcher et al. 2010; AMAP 2018). Ringed Seal is one of the top predators in the Arctic food chain and, as such, can bioaccumulate these compounds. Tynan and DeMaster (1997) noted that climate change could increase the transport of pollutants into the Arctic from lower latitudes due to increased precipitation bringing more contaminated water to the Arctic.

Noise

Exploration and drilling activities, and the infrastructure needed to supply and maintain sites, can be a source of disturbance through direct displacement of animals from habitat. Noise has been identified as a potential source of disturbance for Ringed Seal in this context (Southall et al. 2007). Seismic surveys create a sound wave that is used to image the sea floor and subsurface layers. In recent years, for open-water surveys, the sound waves are created using compressed air (Harris et al. 2001). Using a mid-powered airgun array, Harris et al. (2001) noted some avoidance by Ringed Seal of areas within 150 m of operation but little change in behaviour farther from the ship. They did note the most common behaviours were diving and swimming away, but also noted that the observers were primarily tasked with detection of marine mammals within a defined radius and thus could not follow behaviours effectively. They observed seals close to the array when it was firing but overall seals were farther away (median distance 234 m) during operations compared to when the guns were not firing (median distance 144 m). Seismic exploration activities have been approved for the Canadian side of Baffin Bay but court challenges are ongoing (Skura 2016).

Ringed Seal is also susceptible to disturbance by noise during the ice-covered season when they are hauled out in dens or on the ice moulting. Kelly et al. (1986) documented Ringed Seal exiting their dens in response to a variety of anthropogenic activities from approaches by humans and dogs to snowmobiles and helicopters. In general, they found that mechanical noise caused a reaction at farther distances. They also observed that there were fewer active seal structures within 150 m of seismic lines and that Ringed Seal abandoned dens three times more frequently in areas of noise disturbance (Kelly et al. 1986). The energetic cost of abandoning a den is unknown but may be significant (Kelly et al. 2010a). Moulton et al. (2005) surveyed haul-out densities of Ringed Seal before, during, and after the construction of a gravel island and subsequent drilling operations. They concluded that there was no significant change in spring Ringed Seal density over this time period (1997 to 2001; Moulton et al. 2005). Similarly, Harwood et al. (2007) found no detectable effect of one season of drilling on Ringed Seal in the Beaufort Sea using a before – during study design. Using telemetry data, Cott et al. (2003) reported that seismic surveys in the Beaufort Sea did not appear to affect the timing or route of Ringed Seal migration.

Noise also could potentially cause physical damage to seals near the source. This could be in the form of hearing loss or auditory threshold shifts (Clark 1991). Although seals have been observed near sources of intense sound (e.g., seismic activity, blasting, pile driving) it is unknown if they incur hearing damage. Hastie et al. (2015) tracked Harbour Seals and predicted noise levels for each seal due to pile driving activities. They suggest that for half of the seals they tracked the sound exposure exceeded the estimated permanent auditory damage threshold. The noise impacts on Ringed Seal remain largely unknown.

Spills

Risk of harm to marine mammals from an oil spill has long been identified (Engelhardt 1983) and some oiling experiments have been conducted on Ringed Seal (Smith and Geraci 1975; Engelhardt et al. 1977). They may be at higher risk in the event of an oil spill when there is ice cover because the oil will concentrate in cracks and leads that seals are forced to use to breathe (Engelhardt 1983). Contact and ingestion can occur when compounds are inhaled or can occur when the oil adheres to the fur and is either absorbed through the skin or when it is groomed off (Smith and Geraci 1975). Engelhard (1983) noted that oiled seals passively cleaned their pelage within one day of swimming in clean water in contrast to Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris) and Polar Bear, which groomed the oil out of their pelage. However, kidney damage was noted along with potential liver involvement that could progress if the experiment was longer (7 days) (Engelhardt et al. 1977).

Smith and Geraci (1975) conducted field and laboratory oiling experiments and while seals oiled in the field recovered, all three laboratory-oiled seals died within 71 min of oiling. They noted that the laboratory animals likely had much higher levels of stress related to captivity that contributed to the outcome but also noted that oil spills in a year which seals were already stressed could have a magnified impact on the population (Smith and Geraci 1975). Eye damage has also been noted as a risk to Ringed Seal in oiled waters (Engelhardt 1983).

Direct exposure to crude oil damages Ringed Seal eyes and accumulates in some tissues, and prolonged exposure could be fatal, but the potential impacts of oil spills on Ringed Seal populations are unclear in expansive areas where seals can avoid the affected area (McLaren 1990). However, residues from the consumption of oiled fish can accumulate in tissues such as blubber, which compromises liver and kidney function when metabolized (Smith and Geraci 1975; Engelhardt 1983). In addition, the impacts of oil spills on Ringed Seal populations could be severe if they occurred close to breeding habitats (Smith 1987).

Persistent organic pollutants

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) found in pesticides have been shown to accumulate in the fatty tissues of lower trophic levels and be transferred up the food chain to Ringed Seal (Muir et al. 1988, 1992, 1999; Letcher et al. 2010; AMAP 2017). In particular, organochlorine contaminants (OCs) have been a concern given the impacts on health and reproductive performance of seals (e.g., Helle et al. 1976; Helle 1980). While concentrations of “legacy” OCs in Ringed Seal have declined significantly in the Arctic (Addison and Smith 1974; Muir et al. 1999; Rigét et al. 2004, 2018), those of OCs such as chlorobenzenes and endosulfan have been increasing in the Canadian Arctic (Muir et al. 1999; Rigét et al. 2018), with higher concentrations observed in the west than in the east (e.g., Kucklick et al. 2006).

Several new classes of chemicals have been detected in Ringed Seal such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), short chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs), perfluoro-octane sulfonic acids (PFOS) and perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) (Martin et al. 2004; Wolkers et al. 2004; Bossi et al. 2005; Braune et al. 2005; Quakenbush 2007; Quakenbush and Citta 2008). PBDEs are widely used as flame retardants and are known to accumulate in lipids (Hites 2004; AMAP 2017). Levels are increasing in humans and marine mammals with a doubling time of about 7 years for Canadian marine mammals (Hites 2004). However, research is only starting to emerge regarding levels, trends and effects for most compounds (Kovacs 2014).

Heavy metals

Important heavy metals studied in Ringed Seal include mercury, lead, cadmium, nickel, arsenic and selenium (see Wagemann and Muir 1984; Wagemann et al. 1996; Rigét and Dietz 2000; Dietz et al. 2013). Mercury and cadmium have been studied across the range of Ringed Seal and are variable among sites, with higher mercury concentrations in the liver in the western Canadian Arctic and higher cadmium levels in the eastern Canadian Arctic (Rigét et al. 2005). They also found that concentrations of both mercury and cadmium were higher in adult seals compared to subadults in all locations.

The long-term pattern in mercury concentration derived from teeth indicates that levels were low and stable in the western Canadian Arctic from pre-industrial times to the 19^th century but then increased dramatically in the current era (Outridge et al. 2009). On a short-term scale, a pattern of higher muscle mercury levels in both shorter (heavier ice) and longer (light ice) open-water seasons compared to average years was detected in Ringed Seal from the Amundsen Gulf (Gaden et al. 2012). The authors attributed this to changes in the availability of prey (Arctic Cod) and thus mercury exposure.

Limiting factors

Predation

Ringed Seal is vitally important prey for Polar Bear, which typically consume one seal every few days when hunting on sea ice (Kovacs 2014). Bears hunt seals in moving, offshore ice, as well as along floe edges and on stable shorefast ice (Stirling and Archibald 1977; Stirling and Latour 1978; Smith 1980). In winter, they are most successful in ice-edge and shear-zone areas inhabited by naive subadult seals, and have less success catching breeding adults in the fast ice (Kingsley 1990; Keith et al. 2005; Joint Secretariat 2015).

Hammill and Smith (1991) estimated that 75-100% of Ringed Seal killed by Polar Bear were pups, and that bears removed from 8 to 44% of the annual pup production prior to weaning in Barrow Strait. However, they considered this a potential underestimate given that their study concluded 4-6 weeks prior to break-up, a period during which bears would have continued to feed heavily (Ramsay and Stirling 1988).

Stirling and Øritsland (1995) calculated that a population containing 1,800 Polar Bear would need ca. 77,400-80,293 Ringed Seal per year, and Kingsley (1998) estimated that the Polar Bear in Baffin Bay (N = ca. 4,000) would need to eat 120,000 to 160,000 Ringed Seal per year to sustain themselves. Across the entirety of the Canadian range, Kingsley (1990) estimated that 15,000-20,000 Polar Bear, each needing 40 seals/year, would kill 600,000-800,000 seals annually—an order of magnitude larger than the human harvest.

The global distributions of Arctic Fox and Ringed Seal overlap broadly (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1992), and foxes spend considerable time on the sea ice (Smith 1976; Kingsley 1990; Roth 2002; Pamperin et al. 2008). In the western Canadian Arctic, Arctic Fox was the most frequent cause of death among young (< 1 year old) Ringed Seal, with 9-40% of the annual pup production killed (Smith 1976, 1987). Significant predation has also been documented in the southeast Baffin Island area (Smith 1976; Smith et al. 1979). In other regions, Arctic Fox entered 21% (Svalbard) and 13% (Alaskan Beaufort Sea) of lairs and killed 38% and 25% of the pups in those lairs, respectively (Lydersen and Gjertz 1986; Kelly and Quakenbush 1990). There are no estimates of the average or typical rates of fox-related mortality across the species’ range (Kingsley 1990). As with Polar Bear, interannual variation in Ringed Seal predation rates have been detected for Arctic Fox, with rates increasing in years when lemming (Lemmus trimucronatus and Dicrostonyx sp.) populations are low (Roth 2003).

There is no information on predation rates from Atlantic Walruses, but Inuit in eastern Canada note that it occurs most often in areas where deep water makes it harder for Walruses to access benthic prey (Gunn et al. 1988; Piugattuk 1990; Kappianaq 1992; Kappianaq 1997). Predation by Greenland Sharks similarly cannot be quantified (Kelly et al. 2010a).

Killer Whale observations are increasing in both the eastern Canadian Arctic and in Alaskan and Russian waters (the Beaufort and Chukchi seas; George and Suydam 1998; Melnikov et al. 2007; Higdon and Ferguson 2009; Higdon et al. 2012, 2014). Killer Whale Predation on Ringed Seal has been recorded in eastern Canada (Higdon 2007; Ferguson et al. 2012a,b). Killer Whale are occasionally seen in the Canadian Beaufort Sea, but predation on Ringed Seal has not been observed there (Higdon et al. 2013). Predation rates are unknown, and may be increasing, but overall are likely minor in relation to losses from Polar Bear and Arctic Fox.

Predation by other species (e.g., gulls, Common Raven, wolves) is negligible over most of the species’ range (Kelly et al. 2010a).

Number of locations

Habitat deterioration from sea-ice decline and lack of adequate snow cover associated with human-induced climate change is the most common plausible threat to the population, but there is considerable variation predicted in the severity and timing of change in ice conditions in the future over a very large area (Habitat trends section). Therefore, the number of locations is unknown, but considered to exceed thresholds.

Protection, status and ranks

Legal protection and status

There are no international agreements or conventions specifically intended to protect Ringed Seal, but the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears and their Habitat protects Polar Bear feeding areas, which implies a measure of protection for Ringed Seal and their habitat (Kingsley 1990). Ringed Seal is not listed on any appendix of CITES [Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]. COSEWIC assessed the species as Special Concern in November 2019; it was previously assessed as “Not at Risk” in 1989, and it is currently not listed under the Species at Risk Act.

In December 2012, NOAA Fisheries announced that the Arctic, Baltic (P. h. botnica) and Okhotsk Sea (P. h. ochotensis) subspecies of Ringed Seal would be listed as Threatened under the United States Endangered Species Act (NOAA 2012). This listing was challenged in court and Ringed Seal was delisted (Muto et al. 2017); however, the ruling was reversed and Ringed Seal is currently listed as Threatened under the United States Endangered Species Act. The Arctic Ringed Seal that exist in U.S. waters were already protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA). Ringed Seal is ranked as Least Concern in Greenland (Boertmann 2007), Vulnerable in Norway (Svalbard) (Swenson et al. 2010) and are not listed in Russia (Red Data Book 2001).

In Canada, Ringed Seal, like all marine mammals, fall under the Marine Mammal Regulations (SOR/93-56) of the Fisheries Act (Government of Canada 2015). In 1980, the Seal Protection Regulations (C.R.C., c. 833) were enacted under the Fisheries Act, which permitted any resident to take seals for themselves, their family or dogs, or to sell or trade seal meat to a resident or a traveller for the same purpose (Department of Fisheries and Oceans 1978). These provisions placed no restrictions on the sale or barter of skins produced through the harvest (Kingsley 1990). In 1993, the Seal Protection Regulations were consolidated with those for other marine mammals in the Marine Mammal Regulations of the Fisheries Act. Seal hunting in the marine waters of the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik and Labrador are co-managed by various wildlife management boards (Fisheries Joint Management Committee (FJMC) in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region (Northwest Territories), Nunavut Wildlife Management Board (NWMB) in the Nunavut Settlement Area, Nunavik Marine Region Wildlife Board (NMRWB) in the Nunavik Marine Region, and Torngat Joint Fisheries Board (TJFB) in the Labrador Inuit Settlement Area), under the applicable sections of their respective land claims agreements. The co-management process in two of these jurisdictions, Nunavut and Nunavik, is briefly described in COSEWIC (2017). Scientific advice is provided by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, which manages Ringed Seal in other jurisdictions in cooperation with other agencies.

The Marine Mammal Regulations of the Fisheries Act also include a provision (MMR 4(1)) for a Marine Mammal Fishing Licence (MMFL) for Ringed Seal. Less than 100 of these licences were being sold per year in the 1980s (Kingsley 1990). In the most recent 10-year period, 2007 to 2016 inclusive, an average of 22 (median 21) licences were sold each year from the Iqaluit Fisheries and Oceans Canada office (range 4-51) (Hall pers. comm. 2017), most in relation to Walrus Sport Hunters who also request a seal licence (Young pers. comm. 2017). An MMFL for harvesting seal would only be issued to a non-resident who is visiting Nunavut. A small number of licences would also be issued by other agencies (e.g., Government of Nunavut Department of the Environment) in outlying communities, but annual totals for Nunavut are likely well below 100 (Young pers. comm. 2017; Hall pers. comm. 2017). Small numbers may be sold to visitors to other jurisdictions within the Ringed Seal range, which generally falls within Seal Hunting Areas 1 to 4. As specified in the Marine Mammal Regulations, a resident immediately adjacent to these areas may also hunt for seals without a licence for food purposes. All MMFLs include a condition to “Report harvest to local DFO office”, but it is very rare for DFO to receive a report on a seal harvesting (Young pers. comm. 2017).

Non-legal status and ranks

At the species level, Ringed Seal is “Least Concern” on the IUCN Red List (Lowry 2016), and the Arctic, Baltic, and Okhotsk Sea subspecies are similarly ranked (Boveng 2016a,b; Härkönen 2015). The other two subspecies are at risk; the Ladoga Ringed Seal, P. h. ladogensis being listed as Vulnerable (Sipilä 2016a) and the Saimaa Ringed Seal, P. h. saimensis being listed as Endangered (Sipilä 2016b).

Canadian wildlife species are assessed via the NatureServe ranking process through the Program on the General Status of Species in Canada, through which Ringed Seal is ranked “N5B, N5N, N5M” (Secure) at the national and sub-national (Western Arctic Ocean, Eastern Arctic Ocean, and Atlantic Ocean) scales (CESCC 2016).

Habitat protection and ownership

Existing and proposed protected areas such as national parks, national wildlife areas (NWAs), migratory bird sanctuaries, Oceans Act marine protected areas (MPAs), national marine conservation areas, Indian Reservations, and other lands owned and managed by the Government of Canada afford little protection to Ringed Seal habitat. Some seals use the sea ice adjacent to protected terrestrial areas, but these sites offer no specific protection of Ringed Seal habitat. The Ninginganiq NWA in northeast Baffin Island includes the shoreline and islands of Isabella Bay and adjacent ocean out to 12 nautical miles from shore, and thus directly protects some important fast ice habitat for Ringed Seal. Some habitat is also protected by MPAs in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region (Anguniaqvia Niqiqyuam, Tarium Niryutait) and southern Labrador (Gilbert Bay). The Lancaster Sound NMCA, once finalized, should offer additional protection. Inuit and Inuvialuit have the right to hunt in national parks and other conservation areas within the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Nunavut, Nunavik, and Nunatsiavut.

Acknowledgements

This work benefited from discussions with numerous experts both within and outside COSEWIC. Within COSEWIC, information and advice were gratefully received from Alain Filion (distribution range mapping), Jenny Wu (GIS-based calculations), Neil Jones (ATK information), Hal Whitehead and David Lee (SSC Co-Chairs), and Karen Timm (assistance with organization and communications). At Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Steve Ferguson and Patt Hall in Winnipeg (Manitoba), Jean-François Gosselin and Mike Hammill in Mont-Joli (Québec), Garry Stenson in St. John’s (Newfoundland and Labrador), and Jeremiah Young in Iqaluit (Nunavut) provided information and assistance. All provided valuable contributions on Ringed Seal ecology, distribution, management, and conservation. Maha Ghazal (Government of Nunavut) provided information on sealing and sealskin sales in Nunavut, Kaitlin Breton-Honeyman (Nunavik Marine Region Wildlife Board) provided information on hunters concerned about Ringed Seal health in Nunavik, Jayko Alooloo (Pond Inlet) and Moshi Kotierk (Government of Nunavut) provided valuable perspective on potential impacts of cruise ship tourism in Nunavut, and Lori Quakenbush (Alaskan Department of Fish and Game) provided information on Alaskan Ringed Seal harvest levels. The draft report was greatly improved by reviews from numerous jurisdictions and boards.

Authorities contacted

Alooloo, J. pers. comm. 2013. Discussion with J.W. Higdon. October 2013. Pond Inlet, Nunavut..

Breton-Honeyman, K. pers. comm. 2018. Email correspondence to J.W. Higdon. March 2018. Director of Wildlife Management, Nunavik Marine Region Wildlife Board, Inukjuak, Quebec.

Ferguson, S.H. pers. comm. 2017. Email correspondence to J.W. Higdon and S.H. Petersen. January-August 2017. Research Scientist, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Ghazal, M. pers. comm. 2017. Email correspondence to S.D. Petersen. April-August 2017. Marine Mammal Advisor, Government of Nunavut, Pangnirtung, Nunavut.

Gosselin, J-F. pers. comm. 2017. Email correspondence to J.W. Higdon. April 2017. Biologist, Maurice Lamontage Institute, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, P.O. Box 1000, 850 route de la Mer, Mont-Joli, Quebec.

Hall, P. 2017. pers. comm. Email correspondence to J.W. Higdon. April 2017. Regional Senior Officer, Fishery Management, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Hammill, M. pers. comm. 2017. Email correspondence to J.W. Higdon. April 2017. Research Scientist, Maurice Lamontage Institute, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, P.O. Box 1000, 850 route de la Mer, Mont-Joli, Quebec.

Kotierk, M. pers. comm. 2013. Discussion with J.W. Higdon. October 2013. Social Scientist Researcher, Department of Environment, Government of Nunavut, Igloolik, Nunavut.

Quakenbush, L. pers. comm. 2018. Review comments on draft report provided to J.W. Higdon, S.D. Petersen and M. Hainstock. February 2018. Arctic Marine Mammal Program, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska.

Stenson, G. pers. comm. 2017. Email correspondence to J.W. Higdon. April 2017. Research Scientist and Head, Marine Mammal Section, Science Branch, Fisheries and Oceans, Canada, P.O. Box 5667, St. John’s, Newfoundland.

Young, J. pers. comm. 2017. Email correspondence to J.W. Higdon. April 2017. Fisheries Management Technician, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, P.O. Box 358, Iqaluit, Nunavut.

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Biographical summary of report writer(s)

Jeff W. Higdon is a consulting biologist based in Winnipeg, MB. His PhD is from the University of Manitoba, where he carried out research on the biogeography of world pinnipeds and the influence of evolutionary adaptations to sea ice on the distribution patterns of polar species. Since 2005, he has conducted extensive field research on Arctic marine mammals. Other research projects have involved collecting and interpreting Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge, historical research on marine mammal hunting, spatial analysis of animal movements and habitat selection, and assessments of potential environmental impacts to marine biota from proposed development projects and Arctic shipping. Current research activities include developing Arctic monitoring programs, conducting risk assessments, reviewing industrial development projects, and preparing wildlife species status updates. Jeff has worked for government, Inuit, and conservation organizations and written over 40 peer-reviewed scientific papers, book chapters and technical reports.

Stephen D. Petersen (MSc, PhD, Assiniboine Park Zoo, Winnipeg, MB) is the Head of Conservation and Research for Assiniboine Park Zoo. The Conservation and Research Department runs active field and zoo-based programs from the labs and offices at the Leatherdale International Polar Bear Conservation Centre. Recent research projects at the LIPBCC have focused on the ecology and genetics of Arctic mammals (Polar Bear and seals) as well as engaging citizen scientists to help monitor Arctic species like beluga whales. Stephen has a PhD from Trent University (Ontario), MSc from Acadia University (Nova Scotia) and BSc from the University of Alberta (Alberta). Stephen is also Adjunct Professor at both University of Winnipeg and University of Manitoba, a past-president of the Manitoba chapter of The Wildlife Society, and serves on the Terrestrial Mammal Sub-Committee of COSEWIC (the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada).

Meagan Hainstock (MSc, Polar Bears International, Winnipeg, MB) is the Senior Director for Canada with Polar Bears International. She has worked on a variety of research projects relating to marine mammals in Canada and abroad, including studies of Ringed Seal and Beluga in Canada, and she specializes in science communications for a variety of audiences.

Collections examined

No collections were examined.

Appendix 1. COSEWIC Threats assessment for Ringed Seal, Pusa hispida.

Species or Ecosystem Scientific Name:
Ringed Seal, Pusa hispida

Date:
27/06/2018

Assessor(s):
Draft completed by report authors (27 June 2018), telecon 3 Aug 2018: Jeff Higdon, Stephen Petersen, David Lee, Hal Whitehead, Dwayne Lepitzki, Karen Timm, Tom Jung, Kyle Ritchie, Mark Basterfield, Mike Hammill, Marie-Auger Methe, Jim Goudie, Aqqalu Rosing-Asvid, Dave Yurkowski, Chanda Turner, Emily Way Nee, Paul Irngaut, Bert Dean, Colin Webb, Michael Ferguson, Christine Abraham, Kate Davis

References:
draft calculator and provision (6-month draft) COSEWIC status report