Understanding Systems: The 2021 report of the National Advisory Council on Poverty

Progress on poverty reduction

Building Understanding was tabled in Parliament on February 23, 2021. Using data up to 2018, we reported that if progress were continued and maintained, Canada would meet its legislated target to reduce poverty by 20% by 2020.

However, the full story was a little more nuanced. While we found that, overall, the poverty rate went from 14.5% to 11%, we also found that marginalized groups experienced disproportionately higher levels of poverty. These include unattached individuals, people in sole-caregiver families, recent immigrants, persons with disabilities, children, and First Nations people living on-reserve.

Despite improvements in the overall poverty rates, some of the other indicators of poverty stayed the same or worsened. These included food insecurity, unmet housing needs and the average poverty gap ratio. Additionally, given data lag, the full impact of COVID-19 on poverty and its multiple dimensions was unknown. However, we do know that COVID-19 has disproportionately affected the most marginalized populations. These groups include Black and other racialized individuals, Indigenous people, homeless populations, the elderly, non-status asylum-seekers, people who are institutionalized, persons with disabilities and people living in low income.

Progress on recommendations

Systemic and preventable nature of poverty

Throughout our engagement sessions, we heard again and again that poverty is systemic. Colonialism, racism, existing programs, policies and assumptions put people at risk of falling into poverty or keep people in poverty. Many of the current systems are not working for everyone. They create and perpetuate inequity and injustice. We heard that there are people who benefit from these systems and from the poverty that they create. For example, there are people who benefit from racism, from low-wage workers without protections, and from unaffordable housing. Those that benefit have a vested interest in keeping people in poverty. We need collective action to enable everyone to have adequate supports and opportunity, so that we can ultimately realize our full potential as a country.

COVID-19 has stressed existing systems and has highlighted many of their shortcomings. It has also added new strains and challenges. Nevertheless, it has created an opportunity to remake and reshape our systems. It is for this reason that we decided to focus on systems in this report. Poverty is not an individual failure. No one chooses poverty. The burden of poverty is put on people by systemic and other barriers that leave people without choice, opportunity or dignity. This report seeks to examine those systems and structures and to make recommendations that will improve or replace them with a more equitable, just and humane Canada.

Giving voice to those who are often not heard

How poverty is measured

"You have to humanize poverty. These are people who are often ignored, especially by people in power."

Income level is often used as a proxy measure for individual poverty; however, this does not fully quantify the entire experience of living in poverty. Recognizing that poverty has many dimensions, in addition to Canada’s Official Poverty Line, Opportunity for All established a dashboard of indicators. It allows individuals to track progress made across the many dimensions of poverty.

The Poverty Reduction Act passed in June 2019. It entrenched Canada’s Official Poverty Line, based on the Market Basket Measure (MBM), into law. The MBM is the cost of a basket of goods and services that individuals and families require to meet their basic needs and achieve a modest standard of living across 53 communities. It currently excludes First Nations on-reserve and the territories.

In January 2021, Statistics Canada proposed a methodology for a Northern Market Basket Measure (MBM-N) to include the Northwest Territories and Yukon. The release of the final methodology is expected in late 2021. But poverty is as much about social inclusion, power, autonomy and respect as it is about material things. While measures based on resources are useful, we should remember that they miss important aspects of poverty.

Progress under Canada’s Official Poverty Line

Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Income Survey

• Text version - Number and percentage of persons under Canada's Official Poverty Line

  Year	Number of persons	Percentage of persons
  2015	5,074,000	14.5%
  2016	4,543,000	12.8%
  2017	4,188,000	11.7%
  2018	3,983,000	11.0%
  2019	3,730,000	10.1%

Opportunity for All – Canada’s First Poverty Reduction Strategy set 2 key poverty reduction targets: a 20% reduction in poverty by 2020 and a 50% reduction in poverty by 2030, relative to 2015 levels.

According to Canada’s Official Poverty Line, the poverty rate in Canada fell from 14.5% in 2015 to 10.1% in 2019. This represents a 30% reduction since 2015. About 3,730,000 people were living in poverty in 2019, which is 1,344,000 fewer people living in poverty than in 2015.

Regional trends

Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Income Survey

• Text version - Poverty rate reduction by province, 2015 and 2019

  Jurisdiction / Year	2015	2019	Change between 2015 and 2019 (#)
  Canada	14.5%	10.1%	-1,344,000
  Newfoundland an Labrador	13.1%	10.7%	-13,000
  Prince Edward Island	14.8%	10.9%	-4,000
  Nova Scotia	17.0%	12.1%	-41,000
  New Brunswick	16.1%	9.4%	-47,000
  Quebec	13.7%	8.7%	-386,000
  Ontario	15.1%	10.9%	-483,000
  Manitoba	14.0%	11.4%	-24,000
  Saskatchewan	12.7%	12.4%	+1,000
  Alberta	10.0%	8.2%	-56,000
  British Columbia	17.8%	10.8%	-290,000

Because the country is very diverse, people across Canada experience poverty differently. Provinces and territories exist in very different contexts; they have different economic and demographic realities. They also take different approaches to their social programs and use a variety of social policies to achieve their policy objectives.

According to the CIS, in 2019, poverty was highest in Saskatchewan (12.4%) and lowest in Alberta (8.2%). Between 2015 and 2019, the poverty rate in each province was on a downward trend. Over this period, the largest decreases among provinces were in New Brunswick (41.6%) and British Columbia (39.3%). The smallest decreases were in Alberta (18%) and Saskatchewan (2.4%). Provinces such as Alberta and Quebec, where poverty rates were already below the national average, continued to trend downward.

What we know about poverty in Canada

The poverty rate in 2019 was 10.1% based on Canada’s Official Poverty Line. This means that 3.7 million Canadians, or 1 in 10, were living in poverty in 2019. It is important to understand who the 3.7 million people living in poverty are. This will ensure that we meet the targets set out in Opportunity for All – Canada’s First Poverty Reduction Strategy and that poverty reductions measures are equitable and reach the most underserved and marginalized populations.

Poverty is more likely to affect some groups than others. Factors such as sex, age, gender identity, family composition, immigration status, disabilities, institutionalization, exposure to violence, racism, anti-Black racism, ableism, discrimination, homophobia, transphobia and location all play a role. Because of colonialism (past and present), trauma, racism and discrimination, Indigenous people are at high risk of living in poverty. Marginalized groups face economic barriers, racism and discrimination and are more likely to live in poverty. Unfortunately, as shown in the table below, the CIS does not yet capture the experience of many of these subpopulations.

Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Income Survey

Intersectionality

*Female sole-caregivers identified by head of Female sole-caregiver economic families. Counts do not include children or other members of female sole-caregiver economic families.
The Venn diagram is for illustration purpose only: the size and area of ellipses as well as the overlapping intersections are meant to provide a sense of magnitude but is not done to accurate scale.
Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Income Survey

• Text version - Composition of working age (18 to 64) persons belonging to selected vulnerable groups living in poverty, 2019

  Characteristic	Number living in poverty
  Singles	1,308,000
  Indigenous people (off-reserve)	115,000
  Female sole-caregivers*	131,000
  Persons with disabilities	976,000
  Immigrants	807,000

  ^*Female sole-caregivers identified by head of Female sole-caregiver economic families. Counts do not include children or other members of female sole-caregiver economic families.

People have multiple identities and some of them are marginalized. Having more marginalized identities increases the risk of living in poverty. The figure above, containing information available through the CIS data, intends to illustrate the impacts of intersectionality. Intersectionality refers to the complex ways in which the effects of multiple forms of discrimination combine, overlap, or intersect, especially in the experiences of marginalized individuals or groups. For example, a female sole-caregiver has a caregiver role, which may affect their ability to work. If that female sole-caregiver has a disability, is an immigrant or is Indigenous, their rates of poverty increase as they may experience increased racism and discrimination and face additional barriers to labour market participation and to accessing supports.

The figure below demonstrates another concrete example of the impact of intersectionality by looking at persons with disabilities with multiple marginalized identities.

Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Income Survey

• Text version - Poverty rates among persons with disabilities with marginalized identities in 2019

  Characteristics	Persons with disabilities	Persons without disabilities
  Overall	13.5%	9.0%
  Singles (0 to 64 years old)	42.8%	29.2%
  Female sole-caregiver families	30.2%	24.9%
  Indigenous (off-reserve)	24.0%	13.5%
  Immigrants (10 to 19 years since landed)	18.6%	12.0%

Poverty rates by demographic group

In 2019, the poverty rate decreased for most demographic groups included in the CIS (see table D.1 in Appendix D). Certain groups remain over-represented in poverty or face specific challenges, including:

• children
• youth
• females
• First Nations on-reserve and people living in the territories
• Indigenous people (off-reserve)
• immigrants, refugees and asylum-seekers
• people receiving benefits
• persons with disabilities
• racialized individuals
• seniors
• 2SLGBTQ populations, and
• unattached individuals

Summary of indicator trends

Recognizing that poverty has many dimensions in addition to Canada’s Official Poverty Line, Opportunity for All established a dashboard of indicators to measure and track progress toward poverty reduction (see tables D.2, D.3, and D.4 in appendix D). Despite improvements in the overall poverty rates, some of the listed indicators of poverty stayed the same or have worsened since 2015—even prior to the impacts of COVID-19. This includes the following indicators:

• the average poverty gap ratio
• food insecurity
• homelessness
• unmet housing needs
• literacy and numeracy, and
• youth not in employment, education or training

Data limitations make it difficult to assess trends across these indicators for different marginalized groups. As COVID-19 has greatly affected housing and homelessness, as well as youth, we will report on those indicators in the COVID-19 chapter.

Labour market indicators

Participation, employment and unemployment rates help in developing an accurate picture of the labour market. The 2020 Labour Force Survey (LFS) reports on sex, immigration status and Indigenous heritage. From this, we are able to see that disparities exist for specific marginalized groups. For example, we can report on immigrants between the ages of 25 to 54 (see table D.4 in appendix D). The unemployment rate goes down the more education a person has, but immigrants to Canada and especially new immigrants have much higher rates of unemployment compared to people who are born in Canada (see tables D.5 and D.6 in appendix D). For example, a new immigrant with a university degree has a similar rate of unemployment (12.2%) compared to a person born in Canada with a high school diploma (11.4%). They also have double the rate of unemployment as compared to a person born in Canada with a university degree (5.4%).

Similar inequalities also exist for Indigenous people. An Indigenous person with a completed post-secondary education has a higher unemployment rate (9.3%) than a non-Indigenous person (6.8%). Gaps persist regardless of educational attainment (see table D.7 in appendix D).

Employment outcomes for persons with disabilities are limited in the LFS. Data on their employment comes from the Canadian Survey on Disability, which follows each Census. Employment among persons with disabilities depends largely on 2 factors: the type of disability and the severity of disability. In 2017, employment rates ranged from 40.4% for individuals with cognitive disabilities to as high as 75.7% for individuals with an unspecified disability type.

Since July 2020, the monthly LFS has started to gather data on race. Gaps persist between white people and racialized groups. Levels of unemployment have been higher for racialized groups during the pandemic, as racialized individuals were more likely to work in affected industries. It will be interesting to see how those gaps persist. Data shows that racialized mothers face higher levels of non-participation in the labour force if they are raising young children (Statistics Canada, 2021).

Wage gaps

Immigrants and Indigenous people tend to have lower wages than non-immigrant and non-Indigenous people. According to the LFS, immigrants who landed in Canada less than 10 years ago had a median hourly wage of $21.98 in 2020^{Footnote 4}. This compares to $26.00 for non-immigrants. Immigrants who landed in Canada more than 10 years ago have an equal wage to those who were born in Canada.

Indigenous people have overall lower wages. While the median hourly wage is not available in the LFS for Indigenous people, the mean hourly wage is. In 2020, Indigenous people had a mean hourly wage of $26.81 while non-Indigenous people had a mean hourly wage of $29.59^{Footnote 5}.

Out-of-incarceration individuals face significant challenges when reintegrating into the labour market. A longitudinal study that looked at the economic outcomes of 11,158 federal offenders found that, 14 years post-release, most offenders reported an employment income of $0 (Babchischin et al., 2021).

"The impact of criminal records—once people are released, there is a stigma/barrier. Records suspension costs [are] increasing but [they’re] still expected to participate, although the message is that people want to keep them to the side."

This underscores the underemployment and challenges that offenders face when reintegrating into the labour market. Marginalized groups such as Indigenous people (30% of the inmate population) and Indigenous youth (47% of custody admission) remain over-represented in the incarcerated population (Malakieh, 2021).

Inadequacy of existing benefits

As we noted in Building Understanding, the Canada Emergency Response Benefit was developed in part because many people who found themselves unemployed or unable to work because of COVID-19 would not have been eligible for Employment Insurance (EI). This highlighted a misalignment between EI programming and the type of employment that many find themselves in (for example, part-time, contract or temporary positions). Moreover, the $2,000 per 4-week period was more generous than what claimants received on EI, provincial and territorial social assistance programs and disability benefits. This underscored the inadequacy of current benefits for providing income support to some of Canada’s most marginalized populations.

"I had a client last week that was fired for quarantining."

COVID-19 has also helped shine a light on workers who do not have access to paid sick leave. A 2019 Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives study found that only 14% of the lowest-income Canadian workers (bottom 10%) had paid sick leave, compared with 74% of the highest-income workers (highest 10%) (Macdonald, 2020). Paid sick days are a key lever for health equity. While public health officials encouraged workers to stay home if they were sick, many people without access to paid sick leave could not afford to do so. This meant choosing between going to work sick and paying for necessities. While the Government introduced the Canada Recovery Sickness Benefit for people who were sick with COVID-19 or caring for someone who was, it did not include people who needed time off to be tested for COVID-19. It also did not cover all workers, and there was a time delay for receiving benefits. Many workers were left with little choice but to go to work sick. Advocates have been pushing the federal, provincial and territorial governments to introduce mandatory sick leave for all employees.

Challenges in the caring society and economy

COVID-19 has also highlighted challenges within the caring society and economy. The caring economy includes a range of health and education services, including child and elder care. This work, both paid and unpaid, disproportionately falls to women and racialized individuals, particularly racialized women.

We heard from stakeholders that the care sector in Canada has been underfunded for years. Since 1995, Canadian governments have consistently spent less than the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries average on social services, according to the Care Economy Statement (The Care Economy, 2021). Canada’s social spending as a share of gross domestic product is 2% less (which amounts to approximately $40 billion) than the OECD countries average (20%). Underfunding often means inadequate support for people who are providing care for others. Despite requiring similar skills to other trades, the work is characterized by low pay and poor working conditions. We heard from many stakeholders that people working in the caring economy are often living in poverty themselves. Rules were introduced at the beginning of COVID-19 to limit workers to one long-term care home to reduce the spread of COVID-19. This drew attention to the fact that many workers in long-term care homes were having to work in multiple homes in order to make ends meet.

New education and training requirements have been introduced in some jurisdictions, resulting in increased student debt for workers in the field. However, these increased education requirements are not being accompanied by higher wages.

"The pandemic has had a disproportionate impact … [on] caring work. The burden of the pandemic has fallen on women and children."

Inadequacies in long-term care settings

According to Statistics Canada, there are approximately 500,000 individuals in Canada living in care facilities. The majority (425,000) live in nursing homes or seniors’ homes. During the first wave of COVID-19 (March to August 2020), residents of nursing and seniors’ homes accounted for more than 80% of all reported COVID-19 deaths (Clarke, 2021). Infections among staff at these facilities represented more than 10% of the country’s total cases. As of March 2021, nursing and seniors’ homes continued to account for the greatest proportion of outbreak-related cases and deaths, representing about 7% of all cases and more than 50% of all deaths in Canada (Public Health Agency of Canada cited in Clarke, 2021).

Residents of nursing and seniors’ homes face higher risk of negative outcomes related to the virus, due to complex chronic conditions. In addition, some seniors and persons with disabilities have been living in precarious situations or inadequate long-term care homes. According to a recent Statistics Canada report, there were more outbreaks in nursing homes and seniors’ homes compared to other facilities (though the differences were not always statistically significant) (Clarke, 2021). This precariousness was highlighted after the military was called in to help in long-term care homes in both Quebec and Ontario. A 2021 report (Lysyk, 2021, p. 9) found the specific issues that impacted residents included:

• residents were living in rooms with 3 or 4 occupants
• long-term care homes had insufficient staff and training to provide appropriate care
• infection prevention and control were not consistently practised even prior to COVID-19, and
• a “problematic enforcement practice” culminated in the Ontario Ministry of Long-Term Care discontinuing proactive, comprehensive inspections of homes in the fall of 2018

Affordable housing, homelessness and people living in shelters

COVID-19 has revealed capacity issues throughout the housing spectrum. This includes shelters, supportive housing and affordable housing. Throughout our engagement sessions, we heard that we need housing that is more inclusive. We also need:

• culturally appropriate shelters or homes (2SLGBTQ, Black, racialized, or Indigenous populations)
• culturally sensitive programs, and
• long-term case management without time limits that helps ensure that people stay housed and out of poverty

People spoke about some of the challenges for those experiencing homelessness or who are living in shelters. We heard that many people choose not to access shelters because of their lack of privacy, autonomy, dignity and control over one’s life. Some individuals who are experiencing homelessness do not want to go into shelters due to the many constraints they impose, including curfews and restrictions of freedoms.

COVID-19 also brought to light many of the challenges facing people experiencing homelessness. For example, during the shutdowns, it was hard for anyone to find public spaces to use washrooms. This compounded a daily reality that individuals experiencing homelessness face. There was a feeling among some stakeholders that COVID-19 decreased the stigma of homelessness and showed the need for more dignity. Stakeholders stressed the need to build on the momentum of COVID-19 to provide real solutions to address homelessness. This includes comprehensive approaches to housing and homelessness.

"The longer you live outside, the harder it is to move back inside."

During COVID-19, public health measures required increased spacing in shelters. Levels of government worked together to find creative ways to house people. They worked with shelters to house people in hotels, where people could maintain physical distancing. COVID-19 has shown that with political will and funding, it is possible to get things done. It has also shown that the government can be nimble and accommodating.

During our engagement sessions, we heard a lot of concern over rising housing costs and decreasing affordability in big cities and in small towns. Recent reports from the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) have described increases in rental and housing prices across the country in 2020. The issue is no longer specific to big cities. The impact of price increases has hit the most vulnerable disproportionately. Recent data from the CMHC suggests that units with lower rents were the primary apartments in arrears (Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation, 2020). This means that people with lower rent had to make hard choices. Usually, people with lower rent have lower income and so spend a larger share of their total income on housing. In recent years, there has been a trend to redevelop the old housing stock that was not appropriately renovated for years. This pushes low-income households out of their once-affordable rent. Housing is not replaced at the same rate for the lowest income people.

"The housing system is not healthy when prices rise."

We also heard about “renovictions”—when a landlord removes their tenants to undertake renovations. Following the renovation, they increase the rent. However, allegedly, sometimes no renovations occur and dwellings are only repossessed to increase rent. This phenomenon existed before COVID-19, according to tenant associations. The Comité logement de La Petite-Patrie found that for 363 units, 85% of dwelling repossessions were fraudulent or malicious (Comité logement de La Petite-Patrie, 2020). With price increases during COVID-19 and a lack of supply, the phenomenon has been exacerbated. For children forced to move, it may mean a loss of community, friends and supports and a need to switch schools.

Poverty and health inequity

Throughout our engagement sessions, we heard about the links between poverty and health. Inequalities in health outcomes (such as, life expectancy and the likelihood of contracting chronic and infectious diseases) have been well documented both in Canada and around the world. We also know that the structural determinants of health (such as, social and economic policies, governance structures and societal values and norms) drive health inequities. Reports from around the world have demonstrated that some people are more likely to contract COVID-19 than others. These differences are not random. They include populations that have historically experienced health and social inequities (Tam, 2020).

Researchers have examined the factors that contribute to exposure, susceptibility and treatment of COVID-19. Material circumstances such as housing and employment, biology and health behaviours, or access to and experiences with health services influence exposure. Stigma and discrimination also influence risk (Tam, 2020). Intersectionality plays an important role in assessing the risk of contracting COVID-19. There are overlapping and compounding risks related to sex, gender, race, disability, income, housing, employment, and other socio-economic factors.

Prior to COVID-19, there were health disparities in Canada. People with lower income had more negative health outcomes. According to a longitudinal study, men and women in the lowest income bracket (lowest 20%) have a lower average life expectancy. The gap is 7.7 years for men and 5.4 years for women, compared to those in the highest income bracket (Bushik et al., 2020). During COVID-19, we saw that the virus disproportionately impacted some communities who already suffered from poorer health outcomes.

Public health data from Toronto found that there are more positive cases among racialized and lower-income groups. From mid-May to mid-July 2020, data collected in Toronto revealed that racialized individuals were over-represented in COVID-19 infections. Despite only making up about half of the city’s population, they represent over 80% of cases (excluding cases in long-term care homes). Racialized groups including Arab, West Asian (greater Middle East), Black, Latin American, South Asian, Indo-Caribbean and Southeast Asian people were over-represented in reported COVID-19 cases. As of February 2021, 57% of people hospitalized due to COVID-19 were from low-income households, although they represent only 30% of the population in Toronto (City of Toronto, n.d.).

There are gaps in health access, and this will continue beyond COVID-19. For example, these gaps have been seen in who is prioritized for vaccines and in vaccine rollout, which has led to inequities in vaccine access. Existing barriers to health access such as precarious employment, lack of documentation, distrust of the health system or misinformation have all led to decreased vaccine access and uptake.

Historical trauma and ongoing racial inequalities have also complicated the introduction of the vaccine. For example, some people have praised the Government for prioritizing Indigenous people in the rollout of the vaccine. However, some Indigenous people were the subject of medical experiments in Indian Residential Schools. These same people are now prioritized for the rollout of a new vaccine. For many people, it is the first time they have been prioritized, and some are hesitant as they see it as a repetition of the medical experimentation they suffered as children. We can see this hesitancy with other populations such as Black and Latin American individuals who have historically experienced medical malpractice and systemic racism in health care.

Deteriorating perceived mental health

The perceived mental health of people in Canada has been on a downward trend since Statistics Canada began collecting data. Before COVID-19, the 2019 Canadian Community Health Survey found that 67% of people in Canada aged 12 and older in the 10 provinces rated their mental health as very good or excellent. This is down from 72% in 2015. In July 2020, that number fell to 55%, the lowest since the start of the survey. The decline was larger among youth. According to the Canadian Community Health Survey, life satisfaction has also declined during COVID-19.

According to the latest in a series of online surveys (Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 2021), one year into the pandemic, we observe the following:

• there may be an increase in mental health-related disabilities (particularly anxiety disorders), as:
  • 20.9% of respondents reported moderate to severe anxiety, and
  • 20.1% reported feeling depressed
• there are increases in substance abuse (particularly alcohol and opiates), as:
  • 25.7% reported engaging in binge drinking
• there is an increase in poor mental well-being, as:
  • 21.3% reported feeling lonely

COVID-19 also has indirect long-term effects on mental health. For example, public health measures that restricted in-person visits and gatherings meant that some people could not see their loved ones before they passed nor have large funeral gatherings. This affects the grieving process and can make it harder for people to move on.

Racism

COVID-19 has disproportionately impacted racialized individuals and has highlighted the structural and systemic inequities and barriers to health and social services that existed prior to the pandemic. It has also increased racial and ethnic divides that exist in Canada.

Racialized individuals in Canada often report feeling less safe than the rest of the population. This can affect people’s sense of community as well as their physical or mental health and well-being. Certain populations are much more likely to experience discrimination than others, such as Arab or Black populations.

A July 2020 report from Statistics Canada found that the proportion of racialized individuals who experienced increased harassment or attacks based on their race, ethnicity or skin colour has tripled compared to the rest of the population since the start of the pandemic^{Footnote 6}. In addition, fear and misinformation about the virus have disproportionately impacted some ethno-cultural groups. For example, the largest increase in discrimination was seen among Chinese, Korean and Southeast Asian individuals.

Isolation

COVID-19 has exacerbated challenges related to social isolation. Some people are feeling more isolated and lonely. Individuals are disconnected from their community support. Many youth felt isolation and increased mental health challenges due to stay-at-home orders and the closures of schools and other activities. Many services and programs had to close their doors. As a result, many people dealt with a decrease in community connections caused by COVID-19.

2SLGBTQ youth faced additional challenges. Many 2SLGBTQ youth rely on community programs to feel seen and heard. Their closure led to greater isolation and loneliness. Some 2SLGBTQ youth, who may have been couch surfing or staying with friends, had no choice but to return to unsupportive or abusive homes. Many non-emergency medical procedures and appointments, including medical appointments for transition (a life-saving procedure for many people), were cancelled as the health care system came under strain from COVID-19. This resulted in a higher suicide rate for 2SLGBTQ people. Among 2SLGBTQ youth at risk of and experiencing homelessness, 96% said their life is lonelier because of COVID-19 and 78% reported severe anxiety. This is according to an ongoing study focused on the impacts of COVID-19 on the 2SLGBTQ population (Abramovich et al., 2021).

"We are seeing the impact of the isolation on youth no matter where they are."

Isolation also increased for seniors living alone and for persons with disabilities. Public health measures resulted in banning visitors from long-term care settings, and stay-at-home orders did not allow for family and friends to visit. Many seniors and persons with disabilities were left further isolated from the family, friends and supports they need to survive and thrive. Some people were left thinking that family members had abandoned them, or they died without their loved ones nearby.

Increased consumption of substances

"Due to COVID, people are understanding isolation."

Substance abuse has also been on the rise with isolation due to lockdowns and social distancing measures. This will also have long-term impacts on mental well-being in the country. One year after the first lockdown, heavy drinkers were the most likely to report an increase in their alcohol consumption^{Footnote 7}. Cannabis consumption has also been on the rise, especially for those between the ages of 15 and 29. Reported factors of increased consumption of cannabis include stress, boredom and social isolation. During the first lockdown in April 2020, those reporting lower perceived mental health were more likely to report increased use of cannabis, alcohol and tobacco (Rotermann, 2020). Heavy consumption of substances can turn into an addiction.

Deaths related to opioids have increased during lockdowns at alarming rates. In 2020, 6,214 apparent opioid toxicity deaths occurred (around 17 deaths per day), of which 96% were accidental or unintentional (Special Advisory Committee on the Epidemic of Opioid Overdoses, 2021).

Digital divide

Throughout COVID-19, many provinces and territories moved services online and switched to online learning for at least some of the school year. This transition to digital services enabled students and workers to continue learning or working throughout the pandemic. However, the reliance on online services also shone a light on Canada’s digital divide and the unequal access to technology across the country.

For some people, it is a matter of affordability. Devices and internet access are expensive and beyond the reach of many people. While many organizations and schools made efforts to provide the necessary technology to students, due to funding limitations, this was often insufficient. For example, participants shared stories of schools offering one laptop to each family, without accounting for the number of learners in a household. In some cases, 3 or 4 children were trying to share one laptop to access their online classes and complete their school work. We also heard of schools directing children to go to nearby fast food parking lots to access Wi-Fi to complete their schoolwork.

There are gaps in internet connectivity across the country. This is especially true in rural communities and on First Nations reserves, where internet is more costly. In 2017, most individuals had access to a 1.5 Mbps high-speed internet connection (Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission, 2020). Although this is good news, some of them did not have access to higher speed or affordable services.

People with lower income also need to spend a larger share of their income toward telecommunications services. It represents 9.1% of total expenditures for the bottom 20% income-earning households (or households with income less than $32,914) (Statistics Canada’s Survey of Household Spending cited in Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission, 2020).

For others there remains an issue of digital literacy—not knowing how to use technology. Many people lack the skills and knowledge necessary to participate in online learning or appointments. In some cases, parents may not be able to help young children navigate the technology. In other cases, many parents were working from home while trying to support their children in their online learning activities. They were often pulled between their own work responsibilities and the need to support their children.

"There used to be travel barriers before COVID, now there is a digital barrier due to poverty."

Family violence

COVID-19 also exacerbated some of the challenges of those experiencing family violence. As noted above, some youth, who may have been couch surfing, living in shelters or on the streets, were forced to return to unsafe homes. This was due to public health measures and the risks associated with congregate living. Others faced increased challenges from fleeing family violence, with the closure of support services and public health measures that limited contacts outside one’s household.

Additionally, the stress caused by the virus, isolation, job loss and financial worry can also increase the risk of family violence. The United Nations has called violence against women and girls a “shadow pandemic” during COVID-19. According to a Statistics Canada survey^{Footnote 8}, 8% reported that they were very or extremely concerned about the possibility of violence in the home. This percentage was higher for women (10%) than men (6%).

Child development

"Yes, kids are resilient…. Yes, kids are strong. But they shouldn’t have to go into battle."

There is increasing concern among experts, parents and stakeholders about COVID-19’s long-term mental health impacts on children, as well as how this may affect their psychological development. Children are resilient, but multidimensional factors come into play. The healthy growth and development of children are at risk due to the following factors identified in the literature (Araújo et al., 2020):

• increase of parental stress
• suspension of classroom activities
• social isolation measures
• nutritional risks
• children’s exposure to toxic stress, especially in previously unstructured homes, and
• a lack of physical activities

COVID-19 is a traumatic event for children. Lockdowns impacted children’s rights to education and their ability to learn, as well as their ability to play and feel safe. This may have long-lasting impacts on general health and on the educational attainment of a whole generation. It may also result in increased inequalities and may affect intergenerational poverty in the future. The risk is even greater for disadvantaged children who may be missing programs and supports they received prior to COVID-19.

Youth not in employment, education or training (NEET)

Online learning has been challenging for many teenagers and children. Connections made online cannot replace in-person learning, especially for those needing extra educational services. Disadvantaged students are more negatively affected by online learning, as they might lack access to the internet or devices. Parents might also be unable to help them complete their homework if there are language barriers or due to low levels of education. In the years prior to COVID-19, dropout rates had significantly decreased in Canada. The impact of online learning on those rates remains to be seen, though there is worry that they may increase.

Job losses and the closure of many businesses have also impacted young workers, who often work in the retail, service and tourism industries. These industries have been hardest hit by COVID-19 closures. Data on youth not in employment, education or training (NEET) can provide some insight on the impact of COVID-19 on youth participation in the labour market.

The NEET indicator^{Footnote 9} measures youth engagement. Between 2019 and 2020, nearly 100,000 more young adults between the ages of 15 and 24 were categorized as NEET due to disruptions caused by COVID-19, according to the Labour Force Survey.

"When does the intergenerational burden end?"

Youth with marginalized identities (young women with children, immigrants, and off-reserve Indigenous youth) did not experience a higher increase in NEET rates than the overall population during COVID-19 (Brunet, 2020). However, they do remain at a higher overall risk. We have to consider that young individuals from different demographic subgroups carry different financial burdens when entering the labour market. Over the 2015 to 2018 period, having larger debts, being a single parent, having a disability and being racialized were associated with slower debt repayment of student loans (Galarneau & Gibson, 2020). It will be important to report on this indicator as the economy recovers.

Excess mortality

Deaths associated with COVID-19 fit into 3 categories: those due to a diagnosed infection, those due to an undiagnosed infection, and those that are due to other COVID-19-related factors such as lack of access to medical care for existing health conditions. Calculating excess mortality gives a fuller picture of the total impact of COVID-19. Cremation records demonstrate that there was an increase in mortality in 2020. For example, there was an overall 12.8% increase in the number of cremations in Ontario per week compared to baseline data (Postill et al., 2021). Throughout 2020 and 2021, non-emergency surgeries have been postponed, and screening and treatments have been delayed. Non-emergency appointments have also been cancelled. These delays can have a significant impact on individuals’ long-term health.

Job loss due to public health measures and business closures

Since March 2020, public health measures introduced to slow the spread of COVID-19 have had a significant impact on many businesses and workers. According to the Labour Force Survey, between March 2020 and April 2021, business closures have disproportionately affected low-wage workers and women, particularly young women. This also includes demographic subgroups who are more likely to work in retail, accommodation and services. Racialized groups were also facing higher challenges to reintegrate into the labour market as their unemployment rate was higher. According to available data on the Canada Emergency Response Benefit (CERB), recipients were more likely to be low-income earners or have marginalized identities. This includes Indigenous people, racialized individuals, women and youth (Morissette et al., 2021). These groups were also more likely to work in workspaces with a greater risk of exposure to COVID-19.

From May 26 to June 8, 2020, Statistics Canada had over 36,000 individuals complete an online crowdsourcing questionnaire. The questionnaire found that high poverty rates among most racialized groups prior to COVID-19 made them more vulnerable to the financial impact of work disruptions (Hou et al., 2020). The crowdsourcing participants who were employed prior to work stoppages reported similar rates of job loss or reduced work hours (although the rate was higher among Filipinos and West Asians). However, COVID-19 generally had a stronger impact on racialized participants’ ability to meet financial obligations or essential needs than it did for non-racialized participants. This remained true even after taking into account group differences in job loss, immigration status, pre-COVID-19 employment status, education, and other demographic characteristics.

From June 23 to July 6, 2020, approximately 13,000 persons with long-term conditions or disabilities participated in an online crowdsourced survey.^{Footnote 10} For participants aged 15 to 64 with long-term conditions or disabilities, 31% reported that their overall household income had decreased since the start of the shutdown. Participants with long-term conditions or disabilities also reported a major or moderate impact on meeting their food and grocery needs (44%) and personal protective equipment needs (40%) during COVID-19.

During COVID-19, mothers also faced challenges in accessing early learning and child care, which affected their ability to return to work as well as the meeting of children’s developmental needs. Approximately 4 in 10 parents reported facing difficulties accessing child care in late 2020 as part of the Survey on Early Learning and Child Care Arrangements^{Footnote 11}. As a result, 36% of parents had to change their work schedule, 31% had to work fewer hours, and 41% postponed their return to work.

The waves of COVID-19 and the closing and reopening of businesses meant that, in many cases, individuals lost their jobs multiple times. Following a job loss, there is a time lag in accessing benefits. That means that individuals may have had multiple waiting periods where they did not receive any employment income or benefits.

In some cases, it is not just that an individual business closed or downsized staff—whole industries were closed for prolonged periods. This means that individuals who lost a job in a particular industry were unable to find a new one.

CERB repayment

"You guys always talk about a recession, but we never knew what a recession is because we are always living in poverty. People applied for CERB and finally had money to breathe."

The introduction of the CERB provided much-needed income support to people who lost their jobs due to COVID-19. The low-barrier access and simple application process were praised as an improvement to existing applications—though many people still reported difficulty accessing it. However, the introduction of the CERB created new challenges. Confusion at the time of the rollout, and the fact that it provided higher benefits than existing social assistance benefits, led to some people who were ineligible applying for the CERB. This resulted in overpayments, and the prospect of repayment has extremely negative impacts on low-income populations. Some stakeholders also raised concerns that the CERB would affect income-tested provincial and territorial benefits. There are concerns that CERB recipients, who may have had a higher annual income due to receiving the CERB, may no longer qualify for the income-tested benefits they rely on. The impact of this has yet to be seen.

Impact from closure of the court system

The COVID-19 pandemic saw an increase in domestic violence against women and children. Stay-at-home orders isolated certain groups, particularly women and children, and increased their incidence of experiencing violence. Supports that would have previously been available within civil society centres like school, community and social agencies and government services were no longer available. Similarly, assistance through the court system was severely restricted or closed. Families found themselves challenged to find solutions for family court orders with no supports. There were cases where orders that limit unsupervised contact between a certain parent and a child (due to a domestic violence charge or child protection issue) were breached. With closed schools and day cares and limited contact with grandparents, some low-income parents who were working as front-line or essential workers had no choice but to turn to the other parent (against whom an order was previously issued) to provide care.

Those in areas with limited or no internet service or those without access to technology were unable to receive legal services. Similarly, child support and family maintenance monies were sometimes stopped as lower-income individuals were disproportionately impacted during stay-at-home orders and unable to work from home.

Closure of the courts also affected family reunification processes. Public health measures that restricted contact with members outside of their household made it difficult for parents to visit children who were in care. Some parents were accused of putting their children at risk for asking to visit them.

The legacy of COVID-19 remains to be seen within the legal system. This may be especially true as it pertains to domestic violence and women’s safety, protection of children, the incidence of administration of justice offences (which can result in harsher sentences and increased use of incarceration), and increased numbers of homeless women and children. Domestic violence is a major pathway to homelessness for women and children, including youth.

COVID-19 created opportunity

"The pandemic brought humbleness to the government."

Despite the negative impacts of COVID-19 overall, many stakeholders have pointed to unexpected benefits. COVID-19 has provided an opportunity to re-examine our existing structures, programs, policies and assumptions and to do things differently—to do things better.

In many cases, it has already led to doing things differently. Stakeholders noted that the government has been more flexible and accommodating than ever before, and has looked for creative solutions. It has also introduced expanded and lower-barrier benefits for workers. While remote access to services has been a challenge for some, it has also opened up new opportunities for others. For example, the increase in online access to doctors and medical care can help address access issues for people living in rural and remote communities, where travel is a significant barrier. An increase in remote work has also been beneficial for some persons with disabilities, who may no longer face physical barriers at work.

COVID-19 has also created opportunities for empathy, education and greater understanding. People were experiencing isolation for the first time and now knew what it felt like. There has been more awareness of people who are marginalized and more offers of support. More than anything, we heard that there was an overwhelming sense of not wanting to lose the momentum and opportunity for change.

Poverty is the result of policy decisions and programs

"Poverty is a system failure."

Many people spoke passionately about the role that systems play in keeping people in poverty. This includes health and education systems that discriminate against the most underserved and marginalized people. We heard about child welfare systems that fail to support children and families and that lead to homelessness or involvement in the criminal justice system. We heard that colonialism pervades many of the systems and programs that are designed to help people. As a result, they perpetuate injustice and inequity on those they are meant to serve. We heard about an immigration system that fails to adequately support newcomers to Canada.

"Folks are made marginal—by the systems that they interact with."

In addition to government benefits, we also heard about employment that leaves people in poverty despite working full time. Stakeholders shared stories about people who are working 3 jobs and still barely getting by. We heard about people with precarious immigration status being afraid to speak up about unfair or unsafe working conditions. They are afraid they will lose their jobs or face deportation. We heard about the challenges of the gig economy, where there is significant insecurity. This includes people with short-term contracts or working multiple part-time jobs with no benefits.

"Minimum wage does not lift people out of poverty."

We also heard about gaps between federal and provincial/territorial mandates and areas of responsibility. This includes programs that do not work together or that create unintended consequences. People spoke about instances where federal increases to programs led to provincial or territorial reductions in supports. This left people living in poverty no better off.

Many participants stressed that poverty is about inequities, capitalism and exploitation. They also stressed that it is the result of decisions and choices. We know how to eliminate poverty. The research and data exist. However, systems that perpetuate poverty persist. Stakeholders challenged us to ask who is benefiting from the existing systems. They pointed to a workforce that is living in poverty while a small few benefits and gets richer.

"The reason why the evidence is ignored [is] because those that are in power benefit from the systemic oppression of others."

Poverty is complex

"One of the failures we’ve had as a country is the patchwork of welfare across the country that keeps people in poverty."

Many people shared that poverty is individual, unique and complex. They also stressed that because the challenges related to poverty are complex, the solutions must therefore be broad, multifaceted and innovative. These solutions require all levels of government to work with each other, not against each other, and not just to the edge of their mandates.

It requires real collaboration and must involve all of society. It requires governments to work with other sectors—including employers, service providers and the not-for-profit sector. Most importantly, people living in poverty must be at centre of the solutions and the processes used to develop them.

"You can’t talk about poverty without talking about all of the other social ills that we are concerned about."

Many people described complex systems that do not work together. This includes benefit systems that are punitive and difficult to navigate, and that have complex rules that force people to make impossible and counter-intuitive decisions. Stakeholders talked about a silo approach, where good intentions may lead to programs and rules with unintended interactions and consequences. Many people also described rules that seem to be developed for ease or efficiency of the system, rather than for the people they are intended to serve. Participants stressed that if we want to address poverty, the government needs to address the systemic problems that create and sustain poverty, including:

• rules that work for the system, but not for the people who need them
• rigid programs that do not support individuals’ evolving needs
• “universal” programs that, in practice, are not accessible to some communities or individuals, and
• systems that are meant to support people but instead re-traumatize them and perpetuate poverty

"Something as complex as poverty needs complex systems to support them."

Poverty is a lack of access to resources

We heard repeatedly and consistently that existing resources are not enough to allow people to meet their basic needs. This includes both employment income and government supports and benefits. Many stakeholders noted that there are 2 main causes of poverty: challenges within the labour market (difficulty finding work, precarious work, low wages, discrimination, and lack of access to benefits) and inadequate government income supports and benefits.

"There are some people here that literally have nothing."

Inadequate income leaves people unable to access nutritious food, safe and appropriate housing, transportation, child care, education, and other things they need to lead a stable and happy life. It leaves people unable to take care of themselves and the people close to them. Sometimes it is because resources are not enough. However, even when resources are available, they may not be accessible to everyone in the same way. It is not just about income, it is about equity in accessing tools, opportunities and services

"Now that I paid rent, I can starve."

While many people spoke of poverty as a lack of financial resources, some also described poverty as an absence of non-monetary supports and resources. These include social, family, community and employment supports. Poverty can deprive individuals of connection. For youth in particular, it can disconnect them from school and family. From people who live in the North, we heard that poverty is about an absence of self-determination and control over their own lives. Ultimately, participants described poverty as an overall lack of control, choice and opportunity.

"I have lived under the poverty line over 10 years; it takes a strong person to live in poverty."

Poverty strips people of dignity

"Everyone deserves dignity and basic needs."

Dignity is the right of a person to be valued and respected for their own sake, and to be treated equitably. One of the biggest complaints we heard from people with lived expertise in poverty is that it strips people of their dignity. People spoke about the omnipresent nature of poverty and how it can intertwine with one’s identity. They described the double dehumanizing effects both of living in poverty and of accessing benefits, services and supports. They explained that those effects can linger and continue to shape people’s experiences and identities even if they are no longer living in poverty.

"I want to be able to walk out on the street and hold my head up."

We heard about the societal stigma of living in poverty and that society often blames people for their circumstances. This includes the assumption that poverty is the result of personal failings, rather than the failure of systems, labour market challenges, and government policies and programs. This leads to the false assumption that there are people who are deserving of help and people who are undeserving of help. As a result, many people living in poverty felt as though they were very quickly forgotten and marginalized by people in power and by society.

Poverty is also about untapped resources, opportunities and potential

"Poverty prevents full participation ... particularly for people with disabilities. They are not given an equal chance to grow or to contribute."

We heard that poverty is about untapped resources, opportunities and potential. One stakeholder noted that potential is distributed evenly, but opportunity is not. There are people who have so much potential if only they had access to services, supports and opportunities to fully realize it.

We heard that poverty robs people of a sense of purpose, fulfillment and promise. However, as much as poverty steals opportunity from the individual, it also steals that individual’s potential contribution to society. Everyone is missing out on the meaningful contribution people could provide if given access to the resources and supports they need to participate.

"Being alive and living a life are two completely different things."

Challenges in specific populations

Throughout the engagement session, we heard about some of the challenges specific to certain populations.

Indigenous prosperity through truth, reconciliation and renewed relationships

Throughout our engagement sessions, we heard about poverty among Indigenous people. The impact of colonialism and racism is directly and indirectly linked to ongoing disproportionate rates of Indigenous poverty. We heard of the violence that was inflicted upon Indigenous people by federal, provincial and territorial governments. This resulted in ongoing trauma and anti-Indigenous racism that permeates the labour market, the housing market, the education system, the child welfare system, the criminal justice system, service delivery and everyday life.

Numerous people described Canada as a colonizing country and pointed out that existing systems perpetuate colonization and racism. Several Indigenous people spoke about the lack of access to existing systems, and systems that do not meet their needs or respect their identity.

"Eliminating poverty is a de-colonial and an anti-racist act."

Building equity through programs, supports and benefits

Throughout the engagement session, we heard about the role that racism and discrimination play in causing and perpetuating poverty. Many people spoke about the role that systemic racism and government programs and policies play in the marginalization of Black, racialized and Indigenous communities. Participants pointed out that systemic racism has broad impacts (on the labour market, housing, etc.), leading to poorer outcomes for Black, racialized and Indigenous communities.

"One barrier that makes the fight against poverty all the more challenging is racism."

Some people also spoke of other challenges to accessing services, due to issues like discrimination, violence and fear. For example, we heard that refugees are often afraid to access services and benefits. This can be due to a mistrust of government from experiences in their previous country or because of their immigration status. We also heard that many people cannot access services if they have no legal standing. We heard that 2SLGBTQ individuals are often reluctant to access supports because of the violence and discrimination they face within the shelter system.

We also heard that identity-based rejection, transphobia and homophobia are major contributing factors to homelessness among 2SLGBTQ populations. 2SLGBTQ individuals reported issues related to housing discrimination, particularly for individuals who navigate systems with multiple marginalized identities (for instance, racialized 2SLGBTQ individuals). Participants in the engagement sessions made it very clear that 2SLGBTQ young people face significant problems, including discrimination, when trying to secure safe and affordable housing.

Some of the proposed solutions we heard include:

• advocacy to address systemic discrimination and barriers
• a review by the federal government of all its programs through a poverty reduction lens (this would involve reviewing them for unintended consequence and to make sure they are people-centred), and
• including the voices of those with lived expertise to identify challenges in existing systems and programs and to identify potential solutions

Develop robust systems and structures focused on early intervention and poverty prevention

"You cannot afford poverty; it is too costly."

Throughout the engagement sessions, we heard not just about the need to lift people out of poverty, but also about the need to develop and invest in strong systems to keep people from falling into poverty in the first place. We heard of some of the pathways into poverty, including violence, family violence, health challenges, the child welfare system and entries into and exits from institutions. We also heard a number of solutions to support people along these pathways and at important transition points.

Dignity through enhanced access and improved service design and provision

We heard about challenges accessing benefits and services in most of our sessions. This includes physical access to benefits, particularly with the closing of many in-person services during COVID-19, as well as difficulties accessing services online. People told us that accessing benefits and services often strips people of their dignity.

"Efficiency should not come at the cost of dignity."

Many people spoke of poverty as a full-time job, requiring them to prove their need to many different organizations. Participants told us that the programs and benefits that are meant to support them are hard to navigate. The need to navigate separate provincial, territorial and municipal systems exacerbates this challenge. People noted that there are too many doors and not enough collaboration to help people—particularly young people—navigate the system. Accessing help often requires people to repeatedly provide proof of their need. This includes having evidence like rent receipts and copies of their last year’s income, tax returns and notices of assessment. With electronic fund transfer payments or rent paid directly by social assistance, receipts can be hard to get. It can be difficult to access tax forms, and it requires planning to file and organize them. They can also be easily lost.

"People are falling through the cracks."

Finally, we heard from many people that there is an expectation that people living in poverty have to be without fault in order to receive support. There is no room for them to fail or slip up. When they do, there are significant consequences.

"No buffer—you get punished for having a buffer."

Some of the proposed solutions we heard include:

• case management to help people navigate the complicated system of benefits
• avoiding one-size-fits-all solutions for program design and service delivery (such as, offer multiple access points and service delivery mechanisms and offer flexible eligibility with gradual cut-offs)
• educating people, including seniors, to help them understand the process of applying for benefits to which they are entitled
• better coordination between federal and provincial/territorial systems
• automatic tax filing for low-income individuals so they can access all the benefits to which they are entitled, and
• inclusive systemic approaches to poverty reduction

Employment income and income support

Throughout our engagement sessions, we heard about the many struggles people are facing in the labour market. We heard about full-time jobs that do not pay enough to meet basic needs. We heard that minimum wage is below the poverty line. We also heard about people working multiple part-time and gig jobs to make ends meet, and about employment that does not offer sufficient benefits.

We also heard about racism and discrimination in the labour market. Stakeholders spoke about the challenges that immigrants and refugees to Canada face. Current systems result in inequitable employment opportunities or means to secure immigration status. For example, immigration policies attract highly educated and skilled people to Canada who obtain resident status, but their work or educational credentials (degrees, diplomas, certificates, etc.) are not always accepted. Protectionist views on “Canadian experience” can make it difficult for immigrants to have their foreign experience recognized in Canada. Low-skilled and essential workers who enter Canada as temporary foreign workers often have no pathway to permanent immigration status.

We heard from many stakeholders that existing income benefits are not adequate to meet people’s needs. This is especially true for people who are living on social assistance and disability benefits. People are often forced to live in inadequate or unsafe housing and rely on services like food banks. Many stakeholders noted that people cannot afford to fill prescriptions or to travel to medical appointments.

"When it comes to poverty, the first issue is income, the second issue is income, and the third issue is income."

Throughout the engagement sessions, we heard about the overwhelming need to ensure that benefits meet people’s needs. Some of the specific solutions we heard include:

• broad-based, universal income support programs, as well as additional targeted supports for those who need them
• more direct financial benefits to individuals provided by the federal government
• federally set national standards attached to transfer payments to provinces and territories (such as, make federal funding contingent on minimum standards)
• changing the tax system to allow people with precarious immigration situations to access supports and programs (such as, the Canada Child Benefit)
• a national school food program, and
• a universal basic income to ensure a minimum standard of living

"Governments need to realize that a stroke of the pen is ruining people’s lives…. How would you live on $900 a month … when I can’t rent a place for under $700? Tell me how I live on $900 a month."