Rotavirus A: Infectious substances pathogen safety data sheet

For more information on rotavirus A, see the following:

Rotavirus - Causes, symptoms, risks, treatment, prevention, surveillance, and information for health professionals

Section I - Infectious agent

Name

Rotavirus A

Agent type

Virus

Taxonomy

Family

Sedoreoviridae

Genus

Rotavirus

Species

Rotavirus alphagastroenteritidis

Synonym or cross-reference

Ovine rotavirus, Bovine rotavirus, Simian rotavirus, or group A rotavirus; formerly "reovirus-like agent"^{Footnote 1}.

Characteristics

Brief description

The rotavirus A (RVA) genome comprises 11 segments of double-stranded RNA^{Footnote 2}. Genes encode six structural viral proteins (VP1-VP4, VP6, VP7), and six non-structural proteins (NSP1-NSP6)^{Footnote 2 Footnote 3 Footnote 4}. RVA is non-enveloped and has 3 layers: a core layer, an inner capsid, and an outer capsid^{Footnote 2}. Virions have icosahedral symmetry.

Properties

Rotaviruses are classified into one of nine groups (A-I); group I being the most recent addition, and group J has recently been proposed for inclusion^{Footnote 5 Footnote 6}. Four groups are pathogenic to humans (A, B, C, H)^{Footnote 2 Footnote 5 Footnote 7}. RVA is responsible for at least 90% of RV infections in humans^{Footnote 2 Footnote 8}. Genotypes of RVA are defined by glycoprotein (G) VP7 and protease-sensitive (P) VP4 antigens^{Footnote 2}. Antigenic properties of the rotavirus group, subgroup, and serotype are determined by the VPs^{Footnote 4}. During infection, NSPs are produced to facilitate viral replication and pathogenesis^{Footnote 4}. The protein NSP4 is encoded by gene 10 which facilitates virus replication and functions as an enterotoxin^{Footnote 4}. There are currently 42 G and 58 P RVA genotypes that have been isolated from humans and animals^{Footnote 9}^{Footnote 10}. RVA strains that are responsible for the majority of human infections are G1P^{Footnote 8}, G2P^{Footnote 4}, G3P^{Footnote 8}, G4P^{Footnote 8}, G9P^{Footnote 4}, G9P^{Footnote 8}, G12P^{Footnote 5 Footnote 8 Footnote 9}. RVA strains that predominantly circulate within animal populations appear to be relatively species-specific^{Footnote 5}. The VP4 antigen appears to be a virulence determinant^{Footnote 2}.

Section II - Hazard identification

Pathogenicity and toxicity

RVA causes self-limiting acute gastroenteritis, mostly in children under 5 years of age. Children experience at least one RVA infection before age 5^{Footnote 5}. RVA infects enterocytes of the small intestine and causes damage to intestinal villi, decreasing their absorption ability^{Footnote 2 Footnote 11}. Extraintestinal spread of RVA to other sites has been observed^{Footnote 12}. Studies suggest a strong link between hospitalization due to rotavirus and the onset of autoimmune disease in children, specifically among the following: inflammatory arthritis, connective tissue disorders, nervous system diseases, endocrine diseases, and vasculitis^{Footnote 13}. In humans, symptoms of RVA infection include fever, watery diarrhea, and vomiting^{Footnote 2}. Infection can range from asymptomatic, to mild (watery diarrhea of limited duration), to severe (fever, vomiting, prolonged and severe watery diarrhea, rapid dehydration), or fatal^{Footnote 2 Footnote 5}. Gastrointestinal symptoms usually last for 3 to 7 days^{Footnote 14}. RVA-associated fatalities are rare in developed countries^{Footnote 15 Footnote 16 Footnote 17}, but are frequently reported in developing countries^{Footnote 18}. Complications of RVA infection in children include seizures (4% of cases)^{Footnote 19}, encephalopathy^{Footnote 20}, and hypernatremia^{Footnote 21}.

Similarly, in many young animals including calves^{Footnote 22 Footnote 23}, piglets^{Footnote 24 Footnote 25}, foals^{Footnote 26}, lambs, and young goats^{Footnote 27 Footnote 28}, RVA is a common cause of diarrhea (scour) and diarrhea-related mortality. Infections can be subclinical, mild, or severe. Diarrhea usually persists for 4-8 days^{Footnote 28}. Rotavirus-associated mortality is estimated to be 30% in piglets and goats, 10-15% in lambs, and 5-20% in calves^{Footnote 23 Footnote 25 Footnote 27}.

Epidemiology

RVA was first isolated in the 1970s^{Footnote 1}. Since then, there has been worldwide distribution of RVA. Deaths due to rotavirus infection have significantly decreased, from 659,053 in 1990 to 235,331 in 2019^{Footnote 29}. Disease is often mild or asymptomatic in newborns due to protection conferred from maternal antibodies^{Footnote 2}. Exclusive breastfeeding has also been associated with decreased diarrheal and RV-associated morbidity in children under 5 years of age^{Footnote 30 Footnote 31}. Infections in adults are also often asymptomatic^{Footnote 2 Footnote 32}. Outbreaks of RVA-associated gastroenteritis have been reported among elderly populations in care facilities^{Footnote 33 Footnote 34 Footnote 35}. Many countries have observed significant reductions in rotavirus disease and acute gastroenteritis morbidity and mortality in children under 5 years of age since the introduction of RVA vaccine^{Footnote 36 Footnote 37 Footnote 38 Footnote 39}. It is estimated that rotavirus vaccination prevented 139,000 under-five rotavirus deaths from 2006-2019^{Footnote 40}.

Predisposing factors to RVA include immunocompromised individuals who can develop sustained and severe infection^{Footnote 32}. Elderly individuals over 70 years of age and children under 5 years of age are the populations who are most at risk of rotavirus-associated deaths, especially elderly individuals in low and relatively high Socio-demographic index (SDI) regions^{Footnote 41}. Significant factors which contribute to the number of deaths related to RVA include current health expenditure, gross domestic product per capita, and the number of physicians per 1000 people^{Footnote 41}. These factors were negatively correlated with death rates of rotavirus^{Footnote 41}. Hospitalizations of children for rotavirus gastroenteritis tend to be more common after dry or cold weather months when compared to warm or wet weather months, suggesting that weather related low indoor humidity and indoor crowding may be key conditions that predispose populations to infection^{Footnote 42}.

RVA-associated diarrhea is highly prevalent among the young of many mammals including: calves, piglets, foals, lambs, and young goats^{Footnote 23 Footnote 24 Footnote 27 Footnote 43}. Although vaccination programs have reduced the frequency and severity of RVA diarrhea in calves and piglets, outbreaks of RVA-associated diarrhea still occur in vaccinated herds^{Footnote 44 Footnote 45 Footnote 46 Footnote 47}. This appears to be due to differences between circulating strains and vaccine RVA strains^{Footnote 22 Footnote 46 Footnote 47}.

Host range

Natural host(s)

Humans, non-human primates, cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, goats, dogs, cats, rabbits, chickens, turkeys, pheasants, ostriches, raccoons, bats, giant pandas, wild boars, giraffes, deer, alpaca, mice, and rats^{Footnote 5 Footnote 48 Footnote 49 Footnote 50 Footnote 51 Footnote 52 Footnote 53}.

Other host(s)

None.

Infectious dose

ID₅₀ in humans is approximately 10 focus-forming units^{Footnote 54}.

Incubation period

24 to 48 hours^{Footnote 2}. Individuals with symptomatic and asymptomatic infection shed RVA in feces^{Footnote 55}. In humans, duration of shedding in symptomatic individuals is approximately 24 days and can be up to 51 days after onset of symptoms^{Footnote 55}. Asymptomatic individuals have a shorter duration of shedding and lower viral loads in feces^{Footnote 55}.

Communicability

RVA is transmitted via fecal-oral route, primarily by close person-to-person contact and fomites, but also by consumption of contaminated food and water^{Footnote 56 Footnote 57 Footnote 58}. Rotavirus transmission via inhalation of infectious aerosols has been demonstrated in mice^{Footnote 59}, but the extent to which aerosol-mediated transfer of rotavirus occurs in nature is unknown.

Section III - Dissemination

Reservoir

Humans^{Footnote 5}. However, whole genome sequence analysis of swine RVA strains suggests that pigs may be the main RVA reservoir and source of emerging strains in humans and other animals^{Footnote 5}.

Zoonosis

Phylogenetic evidence suggests that RVA is transmissible from humans to animals^{Footnote 5}, from animals to humans^{Footnote 60 Footnote 61}, and cross species^{Footnote 5 Footnote 62 Footnote 63 Footnote 64}.

Vectors

None.

Section IV - Stability and viability

Drug susceptibility/resistance

Nitazoxanide was found to reduce duration of rotavirus-associated gastrointestinal illness in a clinical trial^{Footnote 65}. Triacsin C analogues and Ergoferon are effective against RVA in vitro ^{Footnote 66 Footnote 67}.

Susceptibility to disinfectants

RVA is susceptible to benzalkonium chloride (0.05%), nonoxynol iodine (0.06%), and glutaraldehyde (2%)^{Footnote 68}. RVA is susceptible to potassium peroxymonosulfate and sodium chloride (PMSC) and sodium dichloroisocyanurate; however, low temperature and presence of organic matter reduced the efficacy of these disinfectants^{Footnote 68}. Rotavirus on surfaces was reduced by at least 99.9% after treatment with peracetic acid (0.035%-0.35%); chloramine-T (1.7%); sodium o-benzyl-p-chlorophenate (0.5%); povidone-iodine complex (1% available I₂); a solution of chlorhexidine gluconate (0.05%) and cetrimide (0.5%); and a solution of isopropyl alcohol (45%), propylene glycol (2%), triethylene glycol (3%) and a quaternary ammonium compound^{Footnote 69}.

Physical inactivation

RVA is susceptible to strong acidic pH (<3.0) ^{Footnote 70} and gamma irradiation (50 kGy)^{Footnote 71}. RVA is inactivated by treatment with heat at 121°C for 30 minutes^{Footnote 72}.

Survival outside host

RVA can persist for prolonged periods in the environment. RVA has been detected in environmental water samples^{Footnote 73 Footnote 74}, sewage^{Footnote 75}, and on various surfaces in health care and daycare facilities^{Footnote 76 Footnote 77}. RVA survival on surfaces can range from 1 hour to more than 60 days depending on environmental conditions^{Footnote 16 Footnote 77 Footnote 78}.

Section V - First aid/medical

Surveillance

A patient suspected of infection should be monitored. RVA can be detected in stool samples using electron microscopy, enzyme immunoassay, reverse transcriptase PCR, and sequencing^{Footnote 2 Footnote 79}. Many commercial enzymatic and immunochromatographic tests are available for the detection of RVA in stool samples^{Footnote 80 Footnote 81}. RVA has been detected in respiratory secretions and cases of pneumonia using swabs from the upper respiratory tract in a small number of patients^{Footnote 4 Footnote 82}.

Note: The specific recommendations for surveillance in the laboratory should come from the medical surveillance program, which is based on a local risk assessment of the pathogens and activities being undertaken, as well as an overarching risk assessment of the biosafety program as a whole. More information on medical surveillance is available in the Canadian Biosafety Handbook.

First aid/treatment

Treatment is supportive and may include administration of oral rehydration solution to replace fluids and electrolytes^{Footnote 4 Footnote 83 Footnote 84}. Zinc tablets can be taken to restore damaged mucosal epithelial lining^{Footnote 4}. Probiotics may be beneficial for treating and alleviating gastroenteritis caused by RVA^{Footnote 4}.

Note: The specific recommendations for first aid/treatment in the laboratory should come from the post-exposure response plan, which is developed as part of the medical surveillance program. More information on the post-exposure response plan can be found in the Canadian Biosafety Handbook.

Immunization

Rotarix™ (GlaxoSmithKline Inc.) and RotaTeq^®(Merck & Co Inc.) are licensed for use in many countries including Canada^{Footnote 38 Footnote 85}. Rotavirus vaccines are used to immunize humans in over 95 countries^{Footnote 38}. Vaccines against RVA are available for cattle^{Footnote 45}, pigs^{Footnote 24}, and horses^{Footnote 43 Footnote 86}. Vaccines are administered to pregnant females to provide protection to newborns via passive transfer of maternal antibodies against RVA in colostrum and milk^{Footnote 64 Footnote 86}.

Note: More information on the medical surveillance program can be found in the Canadian Biosafety Handbook, and by consulting the Canadian Immunization Guide.

Prophylaxis

None recommended.

Note: More information on prophylaxis as part of the medical surveillance program can be found in the Canadian Biosafety Handbook.

Section VI - Laboratory hazard

Laboratory-acquired infections

None reported to date.

Note: Please consult the Canadian Biosafety Standard and Canadian Biosafety Handbook for additional details on requirements for reporting exposure incidents.

Sources/specimens

High levels of RVA are shed in feces of infected individuals. Occasionally RVA is detected in blood, respiratory secretions, and cerebrospinal fluid^{Footnote 87 Footnote 88 Footnote 89}.

Primary hazards

Ingestion of infectious material via exposure to infectious waste from animals and humans, or exposure to infectious material on fomites are the primary hazards associated with RVA exposure.

Special hazards

None.

Section VII - Exposure controls/personal protection

Risk group classification

RVA is a Risk Group 2 human pathogen and a Risk Group 2 animal pathogen^{Footnote 90 Footnote 91}.

Containment requirements

Containment Level 2 facilities, equipment, and operational practices outlined in the Canadian Biosafety Standard for work involving infectious or potentially infectious materials, animals, or cultures.

Protective clothing

The applicable Containment Level 2 requirements for personal protective equipment and clothing outlined in the Canadian Biosafety Standard are to be followed. The personal protective equipment could include the use of a lab coat and dedicated footwear (e.g., boots, shoes) or additional protective footwear (e.g., boot or shoe covers) where floors may be contaminated (e.g., animal cubicles, PM rooms), gloves when direct skin contact with infected materials or animals is unavoidable, and eye protection where there is a known or potential risk of exposure to splashes.

Note: A local risk assessment will identify the appropriate hand, foot, head, body, eye/face, and respiratory protection, and the personal protective equipment requirements for the containment zone and work activities must be documented.

Other precautions

A biological safety cabinet (BSC) or other primary containment device to be used for activities with open vessels, based on the risks associated with the inherent characteristics of the regulated material, the potential to produce infectious aerosols or aerosolized toxins, the handling of high concentrations of regulated materials, or the handling of large volumes of regulated materials.

Use of needles and syringes are to be strictly limited. Bending, shearing, re-capping, or removing needles from syringes to be avoided, and if necessary, performed only as specified in standard operating procedures (SOPs). Additional precautions are required for work involving animals or large-scale activities.

For diagnostic laboratories handling primary specimens that may contain RVA, the following resources may be consulted:

Section VIII - Handling and storage

Spills

Allow aerosols to settle. While wearing personal protective equipment, gently cover the spill with absorbent paper towel and apply suitable disinfectant, starting at the perimeter and working towards the centre. Allow sufficient contact time with disinfectant before clean up (Canadian Biosafety Handbook).

Disposal

All materials/substances that have come in contact with the regulated materials to be completely decontaminated before they are removed from the containment zone or standard operating procedures (SOPs) to be in place to safely and securely move or transport waste out of the containment zone to a designated decontamination area or third party. This can be achieved by using decontamination technologies and processes that have been demonstrated to be effective against the regulated material, such as chemical disinfectants, autoclaving, irradiation, incineration, an effluent treatment system, or gaseous decontamination (Canadian Biosafety Handbook).

Storage

The applicable Containment Level 2 requirements for storage outlined in the Canadian Biosafety Standard are to be followed. Primary containers of regulated materials removed from the containment zone to be labelled, leakproof, impact resistant, and kept either in locked storage equipment or within an area with limited access.

Section IX - Regulatory and other information

Canadian regulatory information

Controlled activities with RVA require a Pathogen and Toxin licence issued by the Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC). RVA is a terrestrial animal pathogen in Canada; therefore, importation of RVA requires an import permit under the authority of the Health of Animals Regulations (HAR). The PHAC issues a Pathogen and Toxin Licence which includes a Human Pathogen and Toxin Licence and an HAR importation permit.

The following is a non-exhaustive list of applicable designations, regulations, or legislations:

Last file update

March, 2024

Prepared by

Centre for Biosecurity, Public Health Agency of Canada.

Disclaimer

The scientific information, opinions, and recommendations contained in this Pathogen Safety Data Sheet have been developed based on or compiled from trusted sources available at the time of publication. Newly discovered hazards are frequent and this information may not be completely up to date. The Government of Canada accepts no responsibility for the accuracy, sufficiency, or reliability or for any loss or injury resulting from the use of the information.

Persons in Canada are responsible for complying with the relevant laws, including regulations, guidelines and standards applicable to the import, transport, and use of pathogens in Canada set by relevant regulatory authorities, including the Public Health Agency of Canada, Health Canada, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Environment and Climate Change Canada, and Transport Canada. The risk classification and related regulatory requirements referenced in this Pathogen Safety Data Sheet, such as those found in the Canadian Biosafety Standard, may be incomplete and are specific to the Canadian context. Other jurisdictions will have their own requirements.

References

Footnote 1

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Footnote 2

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Footnote 3

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Footnote 4

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Footnote 5

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Footnote 6

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Footnote 8

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Footnote 9

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Footnote 10

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Footnote 11

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Footnote 12

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Footnote 13

Ha, E. K., J. H. Kim, H. R. Cha, G. C. Lee, J. Shin, Y. H. Shin, H. S. Baek, S. W. Lee, and M. Y. Han. 2023. Rotavirus-Associated Hospitalization in Children With Subsequent Autoimmune Disease. JAMA Netw Open. 6:e2324532.

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Footnote 14

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Footnote 15

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Footnote 16

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Footnote 17

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Footnote 18

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Footnote 19

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Footnote 20

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Footnote 21

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Footnote 22

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Footnote 23

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Footnote 24

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Footnote 25

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Footnote 26

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Footnote 27

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Footnote 28

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Footnote 29

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Footnote 30

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Footnote 31

Shumetie, G., M. Gedefaw, A. Kebede, and T. Derso. 2018. Exclusive breastfeeding and rotavirus vaccination are associated with decreased diarrheal morbidity among under-five children in Bahir Dar, northwest Ethiopia. Public Health Rev. 39:28-018-0107-6. eCollection 2018.

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Footnote 32

Anderson, E. J., and S. G. Weber. 2004. Rotavirus infection in adults. Lancet Infect. Dis. 4:91-99.

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Footnote 33

Gunn, L., S. A. Feeney, O. Cashman, P. J. Collins, P. V. Coyle, and H. O'Shea. 2012. Molecular characterization of group A rotavirus found in elderly patients in Ireland; predominance of G1P[8], continued presence of G9P[8], and emergence of G2P[4]. J. Med. Virol. 84:2008-2017.

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Footnote 34

Marshall, J., J. Botes, G. Gorrie, C. Boardman, J. Gregory, J. Griffith, G. Hogg, A. Dimitriadis, M. Catton, and R. Bishop. 2003. Rotavirus detection and characterisation in outbreaks of gastroenteritis in aged-care facilities. J. Clin. Virol. 28:331-340.

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Footnote 35

Yamagami, T., and H. Yokoyama. 2007. Two cases of group A rotavirus outbreak among adults. Kansenshogaku Zasshi. 81:256-260.

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Footnote 36

Ahmed, M. C., J. Heukelbach, A. Weddih, A. Filali-Maltouf, M. Sidatt, K. Makhalla, S. Dahdi, A. C. Cheikh Ahmed, M. V. El-Mami, J. E. Tate, U. D. Parashar, and M. Benhafid. 2019. Reduction of hospitalizations with diarrhea among children aged 0-5 years in Nouakchott, Mauritania, following the introduction of rotavirus vaccine. Vaccine. 37:1407-1411.

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Footnote 37

Paternina-Caicedo, A., U. D. Parashar, N. Alvis-Guzman, L. H. De Oliveira, A. Castano-Zuluaga, K. Cotes-Cantillo, O. Gamboa-Garay, W. Coronell-Rodriguez, and F. De la Hoz-Restrepo. 2015. Effect of rotavirus vaccine on childhood diarrhea mortality in five Latin American countries. Vaccine. 33:3923-3928.

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Footnote 38

Steele, A. D., J. C. Victor, M. E. Carey, J. E. Tate, D. E. Atherly, C. Pecenka, Z. Diaz, U. D. Parashar, and C. D. Kirkwood. 2019. Experiences with rotavirus vaccines: can we improve rotavirus vaccine impact in developing countries? Hum. Vaccin Immunother. 1-13.

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Footnote 39

Wilson, S. E., L. C. Rosella, J. Wang, A. Renaud, N. Le Saux, N. S. Crowcroft, S. Desai, T. Harris, S. Bolotin, J. Gubbay, and S. L. Deeks. 2019. Equity and impact: Ontario's infant rotavirus immunization program five years following implementation. A population-based cohort study. Vaccine.

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Footnote 40

Clark, A., S. Mahmud, F. Debellut, C. Pecenka, M. Jit, J. Perin, J. Tate, H. M. Soeters, R. E. Black, M. Santosham, and C. Sanderson. 2023. Estimating the global impact of rotavirus vaccines on child mortality. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 137:90-97.

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Footnote 41

Fields, V. S., H. Safi, C. Waters, J. Dillaha, L. Capelle, S. Riklon, J. G. Wheeler, and D. T. Haselow. 2019. Mumps in a highly vaccinated Marshallese community in Arkansas, USA: an outbreak report. Lancet Infect. Dis. 19:185-192.

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Footnote 42

Brandt, C. D., H. W. Kim, W. J. Rodriguez, J. O. Arrobio, B. C. Jeffries, and R. H. Parrott. 1982. Rotavirus gastroenteritis and weather. J. Clin. Microbiol. 16:478-482.

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Footnote 43

Carossino, M., M. E. Barrandeguy, Y. Li, V. Parreno, J. Janes, A. T. Loynachan, and U. B. R. Balasuriya. 2018. Detection, molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of G3P[12] and G14P[12] equine rotavirus strains co-circulating in central Kentucky. Virus Res. 255:39-54.

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Footnote 44

Lorenzetti, E., T. N. da Silva Medeiros, A. F. Alfieri, and A. A. Alfieri. 2011. Genetic heterogeneity of wild-type G4P[6] porcine rotavirus strains detected in a diarrhea outbreak in a regularly vaccinated pig herd. Vet. Microbiol. 154:191-196.

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Footnote 45

da Silva Medeiros, T. N., E. Lorenzetti, A. F. Alfieri, and A. A. Alfieri. 2015. Phylogenetic analysis of a G6P[5] bovine rotavirus strain isolated in a neonatal diarrhea outbreak in a beef cattle herd vaccinated with G6P[1] and G10P[11] genotypes. Arch. Virol. 160:447-451.

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Footnote 46

Barreiros, M. A., A. F. Alfieri, K. C. Medici, J. P. Leite, and A. A. Alfieri. 2004. G and P genotypes of group A rotavirus from diarrhoeic calves born to cows vaccinated against the NCDV (P[1], G6) rotavirus strain. J. Vet. Med. B Infect. Dis. Vet. Public Health. 51:104-109.

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Footnote 47

Fritzen, J. T. T., E. Lorenzetti, M. V. Oliveira, V. R. Bon, H. Ayres, A. F. Alfieri, and A. A. Alfieri. 2018. Cross-sectional study of the G and P genotypes of rotavirus A field strains circulating in regularly vaccinated dairy cattle herds. Trop. Anim. Health Prod.

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Footnote 48

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