Western chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata) Canadian Shield population: recovery strategy

For copies of the recovery strategy, or for additional information on species at risk, including COSEWIC Status Reports, residence descriptions, action plans, and other related recovery documents, please visit the Species at Risk (SAR) Public Registry.

Également disponible en français sous le titre
« Programme de rétablissement de la rainette faux-grillon de l’Ouest (Pseudacris triseriata), population des Grands Lacs et Saint-Laurent et du Bouclier canadien, au Canada »

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Preface

The federal, provincial, and territorial government signatories under the Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk (1996) agreed to establish complementary legislation and programs that provide for effective protection of species at risk throughout Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act (S.C. 2002, c.29) (SARA), the federal competent ministers are responsible for the preparation of recovery strategies for listed Extirpated, Endangered, and Threatened species and are required to report on progress within five years of the publication of the final document on the Species at Risk Public Registry.

The Minister of the Environment and the Minister responsible for Parks Canada Agency are the competent ministers under SARA for the Western Chorus Frog (Pseudacris triseriata), Great Lakes / St. Lawrence – Canadian Shield population, and have prepared this strategy, as per section 37 of SARA. To the extent possible, it has been prepared in cooperation with the Government of Quebec (ministère du Développement durable, de l'Environnement et de la Lutte contre les Changements Climatiques; ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs; ministère de l'Énergie et des Ressources naturelles) and the Government of Ontario (Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry) under subsection 39(1) of SARA.

Success in the recovery of this species depends on the commitment and cooperation of many different constituencies that will be involved in implementing the directions set out in this strategy, and will not be achieved by Environment Canada, Parks Canada Agency, or any other jurisdiction alone. All Canadians are invited to join in supporting and implementing this strategy for the benefit of the Western Chorus Frog (Pseudacris triseriata), Great Lakes / St. Lawrence – Canadian Shield population, and for Canadian society as a whole.

This recovery strategy will be followed by one or more action plans that will provide information on recovery measures to be taken by Environment Canada, Parks Canada Agency and other jurisdictions and/or organizations involved in the conservation of the species. Implementation of this strategy is subject to the appropriations, priorities and budgetary constraints of the participating jurisdictions and organizations.

The recovery strategy sets the strategic direction to arrest or reverse the decline of the species, including identification of critical habitat to the extent possible. It provides all Canadians with information to help take action on species conservation. When the recovery strategy identifies critical habitat, there may be regulatory implications as SARA sets out a process to evaluate existing protection mechanisms under other Acts of Parliament and provincial and territorial legislation, and if necessary, to put in place additional protection under SARA. For critical habitat located on federal lands outside of federal protected areas the Minister of the Environment must either report on existing legal protection or make an order to provide protection. The Minister of the Environment will assess whether critical habitat is effectively protected on non-federal lands. The discretion to protect critical habitat that is not effectively protected rests with the Governor in Council.

Acknowledgments

This recovery strategy was prepared by Vincent Carignan (Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service [EC-CWS] – Quebec region) in collaboration with:

EC-CWS- Ontario region : Krista Holmes, Marie-Claude Archambault, Carollynne Smith ^{Content Footnote1}, Barbara Sleak ^{Content Footnote2}, Azndrea Kettle, Jeff Robinson, Tania Morais, Madeline Austen, Lesley Dunn and Elizabeth Rezek.

EC-CWS- Quebec region : Alain Branchaud, Sébastien Rioux ^{Content Footnote2}, Michel Saint-Germain ^{Content Footnote2}, Geneviève Langlois, Matthew Wild and Karine Picard.

EC-CWS- National Capital region: Manon Dubé and Ewen Eberhardt.

Western Chorus Frog Recovery Team in Quebec (past and current members): Vincent Carignan (Chair), Daniel Toussaint, Yohann Dubois, Nathalie Tessier, Lyne Bouthillier, Simon Pelletier and Harold Ericksen (Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs - MFFP); Claude Daigle ^{Content Footnote2} and Geneviève Ouimet (Ministère du Développement durable, de l'Environnement et de la Lutte contre les Changements Climatiques – MDDELCC); Pierre-André Bernier (consulting biologist); Tommy Montpetit and Valéry Hamel (Centre d'information en environnement de Longueuil); Caroline Gagné (Nature Conservancy of Canada); Véronique Michaud and François Durand ^{Content Footnote3} (Hydro-Québec); Karine Lehoux (Nature-Action Québec); Nicole Desroches (Agence des bassins versants des 7); and Andrée Gendron (EC- Water Science and Technology Directorate – Quebec region).

Department of National Defense (DND): Dean Nernberg (Director General Governance, Policy and Strategy) and Robert Werbiski (Montréal/Saint-Jean garrison).

Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry (MNRF): Amelia Argue (Species at Risk Branch) and Melissa Laplante (Ontario Parks).

Parks Canada Agency (PCA): Josh Van Wieren and Gary Allen.

Additional thanks go to: Marie-José Ribeyron (consultant); Frederick Schueler and Aleta Karstad (consultants); Eva Katic (National Capital Commission).

Executive Summary

The Western Chorus Frog is a small amphibian that usually breeds in temporary wetlands located near open habitats or discontinuous forests. The species is considered globally secure. However, the Great Lakes / St. Lawrence – Canadian Shield (GLSLCS) population, found at the northern limit of the range, was assessed as Threatened by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) in 2008 and has been listed according to the same status under Schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act (SARA) since 2010.

The abundance of the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) populations is unknown, although it is thought to fluctuate considerably from year to year depending on hydrological conditions, among other factors. In eastern Ontario, data from 1995 to 2006 show a decrease of more than 40% in the occupancy of breeding wetlands. In Quebec, the two regions in which the species' occurs (Montérégie and Outaouais), respectively lost 14% and 28% of known breeding wetlands between 2004 and 2009.

The main threats to the species are habitat loss and degradation through urban development, intensification of agriculture, climate change, pesticides and fertilizers, the expansion and maintenance of linear infrastructures, as well as habitat succession.

There are unknowns regarding the feasibility of recovery of the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS). Nevertheless, in keeping with the precautionary principle, this recovery strategy has been prepared as per section 41(1) of SARA as would be done when recovery is determined to be feasible.

The population and distribution objectives for the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) in Canada are:

• Over the short-term (2015-2025): maintain the areas of occupied suitable habitat as well as the breeding population level within each local population and, where a metapopulation is present, maintain the connectivity among the local populations constituting the metapopulation.
• Over the long-term (2015-2035): ensure the viability of each local population and of metapopulations, where present, by increasing the areas of occupied suitable habitat, the breeding population level within each local population, as well as the connectivity among the local populations constituting a metapopulation. Also, where technically and biologically feasible, restore historical or extirpated local populations or create new habitats.

Broad recovery strategies and approaches to achieve these objectives are presented in the Strategic Direction for Recovery section.

Critical habitat for the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) is partially identified in this recovery strategy. It corresponds to the areas of suitable habitat within polygons combining breeding wetlands that have been used on at least 2 occasions in the past 20 years (including at least once in the past 10 years), adjacent terrestrial habitats, and the dispersal habitats that connect them that meet the criteria set out in section 7.1.2. A total of 267 critical habitat units are identified, 218 of which are located in Ontario and 49 in Quebec. A schedule of studies has been developed to complete the identification of critical habitat necessary to meet the population and distribution objectives.

One or more action plans will be posted on the Species at Risk Public Registry before the end of 2020.

1. COSEWIC ^{Content Footnote4} Species Assessment Information

2. Species Status Information

The Western Chorus Frog (Great Lakes / St. Lawrence – Canadian Shield (GLSLCS) population) is entirely (100%) found in Canada (COSEWIC 2008). This population was listed as Threatened in Schedule 1 to the Species at Risk Act (SARA) (S.C. 2002, c. 29) in 2010. In Quebec, this population has been listed as Vulnerable under the Act Respecting Threatened or Vulnerable Species (R.S.Q., c. E-12.01) since 2001, and its status is currently under review. In Ontario, the species is not currently listed under the Endangered Species Act, 2007 (S.O. 2007, c. 6).

Globally, NatureServe (2012) considers the Western Chorus Frog to be Secure (G5). The GLSLCS population has not been assessed at the global or national levels. However, a subnational status of Apparently Secure (S4) was assigned in Ontario, while in Quebec it is considered Imperiled (S2).

3. Species Information

In Canada, COSEWIC (2008, 2010) defines two designatable units for the Western Chorus Frog: the Great Lakes / St. Lawrence – Canadian Shield population (GLSLCS), discussed in this recovery strategy, and the Carolinian population, which has been designated as Not at Risk (Figure 1).

Genetic analyses support the hypothesis that individuals of the GLSLCS population could be Boreal Chorus Frogs (Pseudacris maculata) rather than Western Chorus Frogs (Figure 2; Moriarty-Lemmon et al. 2007; Rogic et al. 2015). However, the Boreal Chorus Frog has not been assessed by COSEWIC ^{Content Footnote5}. In light of the continued taxonomic uncertainty, EC relies on the pre-existing assessment of COSEWIC given its expertise in this matter.  The scope of the present Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) is defined using the boundary between the Carolinian and Great Lakes/St. Lawrence – Canadian Shield faunal provinces established by COSEWIC (2008, 2010).  The term Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) used hereafter refers to the individuals in southern Ontario and Quebec falling in the Great Lakes/St. Lawrence and Canadian Shield faunal provinces rather than to their genetic identity, in compliance with the species current listing under SARA.  As this population is likely to remain as a distinct unit regardless of its taxonomic classification, the completion of this recovery strategy is appropriate. This Chorus Frog population is in a precarious state in southern Ontario and Quebec (see section 3.2).

3.1. Species Description

The COSEWIC (2008) status report describes the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) as a small amphibian, ranging in colour from brown to olive grey, that weighs about 1 g and measures about 2.5 cm long as an adult. It has three dark lines along its back, one wider line on each flank, and a broad line that runs across the eyes. The species' call is a long cre-ee-ee-ee-eek, similar to the sound of running a fingernail across the teeth of a metal comb. To the inexperienced ear, this call can be confused with the territorial trill (different from the call) of the Spring Peeper (Pseudacris crucifer), a much more widespread and abundant species (Schueler and Karstad 2012a). The call of the Spring Peeper, a short peeeep, is very distinctive from that of the Western Chorus Frog. Both species breed in early spring and can produce impressive choruses within which the number of individuals cannot be determined.

The life expectancy of adult Western Chorus Frogs is usually one year (a single reproductive event), although some have been known to live up to two or three years (Whiting 2004). After mating and egg-laying occur, the eggs hatch in 3 to 27 days, depending on water temperature. Thereafter, tadpoles take between 40 and 90 days to complete their metamorphosis into adults (Whitaker 1971; Whiting 2004).

3.2. Population and Distribution

The distribution of the Western Chorus Frog extends from the east-central United States to southwestern Quebec (Figure 2). In Canada, the Western Chorus Frog is found in the lowlands of south-central and eastern Ontario as well as south-western Quebec.

In Quebec, the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) was historically present in the southern part of the province, from the Ottawa Valley to the foothills of the Appalachians and west of the Richelieu River (Bonin and Galois 1996; Picard and Desroches 2004; Figure 3). Currently, the species is estimated to occupy only 10% of its former range (Bonin and Galois 1996). In the Montérégie region (south-western Quebec), the species is thought to have been reduced to just over 800 highly fragmented sites within a narrow 20 km wide band between the municipalities of Beauharnois to the south and Contrecoeur to the north (Bonin and Galois 1996; COSEWIC 2008; Rioux 2008). The Western Chorus Frog recovery team in Quebec (WCFRTQ) determined that 14% of known breeding habitats were destroyed in this region over the 2004-2009 period (WCFRTQ 2010). The presence of the species is also confirmed in more than 220 sites ^{Content Footnote6} in the Outaouais region (western Quebec) along a 10 km wide and 100 km long band that stretches east to west along the Ottawa River between Gatineau and Île-du-Grand-Calumet (St-Hilaire and Belleau 2005; COSEWIC 2008). Between 2004 and 2009, 28% of known breeding habitats were destroyed in this region (WCFRTQ 2010). In 2009, the species occupied 102 km² of habitat (60 km² in the Montérégie region and 42 km² in the Outaouais region) (WCFRTQ 2010), an area in constant decline since.

In Ontario, the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) is much more widespread, extending from the United States border to Georgian Bay, south of Algonquin Park in the Frontenac Axis, and up the Ottawa Valley to Eganville (Oldham and Weller 2002). Few systematic surveys specific to the species and its habitat have been conducted in this province (Cook 1992; Schueler 2006; Schueler and Karstad 2012b); therefore, a complete estimate of the number of occupied sites is not available. An analysis of the Marsh Monitoring Program ^{Content Footnote7} data for the period of 1995–1996 to 2005–2006 however shows that the number of occupied sites in the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River faunal province decreased by 42.6% in Ontario (Crewe et al. 2009 – supplement to the 2008 COSEWIC ^{Content Footnote8} status report). A few studies in eastern Ontario also report a decrease in the number of sites where the species has historically been present (a decline of 30% near Ottawa: Seburn and Gunson 2011; a decline of 95% near Cornwall: Seburn et al. 2008). These two studies were conducted in the urban/agricultural interface and illustrate the trend of loss of habitat due to housing developments in this type of context. They do not, however, take into account the fact that some adjacent breeding sites have since been colonized.

Western Chorus Frog surveys are based on auditory detections, which, for this species, cannot be used to determine population abundance trends since the number of individuals cannot be estimated in larger choruses (COSEWIC 2008). The abundance of Western Chorus Frog populations is therefore unknown. In addition to limitations related to the survey methodology, the identification of trends is complicated by the temporary and therefore dynamic nature of occupied wetlands, large fluctuations in some populations due to climatic conditions and the possibility of cyclic variations in populations (Skelly et al. 2003; Crewe et al. 2009).

3.3. Needs of the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS)

The Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) occupies a variety of lowland habitats with an open or discontinuous canopy (e.g., clearings, damp meadows, fallow lands, shrublands), where slight depressions in topography allows the formation of wetlands (e.g., marshes, swamps, ponds) that generally dry out in summer (Ouellet and Leheurteux 2007). The vegetation in those habitats is mainly herbaceous (e.g., sedges [Carex spp.], cattails [Typha spp.],Reed Canary Grass [Phalaris arundinacea]), but also includes shrubs (e.g., Red Osier Dogwood [Cornus stolonifera], willows [Salix spp.], Speckled Alder [Alnus incana ssp. rugosa]) and partially submerged trees (e.g., Black Ash [Fraxinus nigra], Red Maple [Acer rubrum]).

Within the habitats occupied by the species, the home range ^{Content Footnote9} of an individual must provide for the specific needs of the various life cycle stages (breeding, foraging and movements, hibernation). Dispersal outside of individual home ranges is also an important element to maintain local populations and metapopulations ^{Content Footnote10} of the Western Chorus Frog.

Breeding

During the breeding period, individuals primarily occupy temporary wetlands (Bonin and Gallois 1996; Picard and Desroches 2004). This could be the result of a reduced predation pressure. Indeed, Skelly (1995, 1996) showed that the number, size and diversity of predators increased with the degree of permanence of a wetland. The reduced influence or absence of predators is also a characteristic of wetlands that are physically isolated from the hydrologic network.

In agricultural landscapes of the Outaouais region, St-Hilaire (2005) and Gagné (2011) found that breeding wetlands ranged from 0.01 to 6.12 ha (average 0.27 ha), 68% were not connected to a stream, and only 9% were within 50 m of a wetland large enough to be mapped by current geospatial tools. These statistics have not been compiled in Ontario or for the Montérégie region in Quebec but breeding wetlands are generally below 1 ha in the latter (Picard and Desroches 2004).

The temporary nature of breeding habitats increases the susceptibility to premature drying due to climate variations such as high temperatures, low precipitation or other causes such as altered drainage. This partly explains why large inter-annual fluctuations in abundance may occur in some populations. The persistence of local populations therefore depends on the availability of a sufficient number of wetlands having a hydroperiod (presence of water) sufficiently long to allow tadpoles to metamorphose into their adult form, even in drought years.

Foraging and movements within a local population

Foraging as well as other activities conducted in terrestrial habitats have been shown to generally occur within a 250 to 300 m radius of breeding wetlands (Desroches et al. 2002; Semlitsch and Bodie 2003; Ouellet and Leheurteux 2007). Indeed, Western Chorus Frogs (GLSLCS) have limited movement capabilities both in aquatic and terrestrial habitats, with a daily average of 3.5 m and a maximum of 42 m (Kramer 1973). In combination with their small size, these characteristics make individuals susceptible to dehydration when they cross drier environments (e.g., roads, agricultural fields; Picard and Desroches 2004; Whiting 2004; Mazerolle and Desrochers 2005). The type of habitat that surrounds and connects breeding wetlands therefore influences the distances traveled by an individual. Although home ranges can incorporate significant agricultural cover (up to 86% in Seburn et al. 2011) or urban land uses if biophysical attributes are suitable and available in sufficient amount to meet the species' needs, Gagné (2011) showed that occupied sites include less intensive annual crops (3% of the total area for occupied sites versus 8% of the total area for non-occupied sites) and more open, uncultivated land (31% of the total area for occupied sites versus 13% of the total area for non-occupied sites) within a 300 m radius around breeding sites.

Hibernation

Western Chorus Frogs hibernate in the terrestrial portion of their home range, in soft soil substrates, under rocks, dead trees or dead leaves or in existing burrows (Froom 1982). Although individualsare freeze-tolerant at subzero temperatures during hibernation (Storey 1990, Storey and Storey 1986, 1987), these biophysical attributes may help to reduce further their vulnerability to weather events.

Whiting's (2004) study in the Montérégie region indicates that almost all individuals hibernate less than 100 m from breeding wetlands, one possible reason being that proximity to such sites affords a reproductive advantage during the spring thaw.

Dispersal between local populations

Given that adults are thought to breed only once in their lifetime and that the mortality rate is high at all life-cycle stages (81% to 99% for adults: Smith 1987; Whiting 2004), the survival of each local population is dependent on annual recruitment of individuals through breeding (i.e. produced within the local population) and/or through immigration from adjacent local populations (long-distance dispersal).

In Western Chorus Frog populations, the genetic diversity found at the landscape scale suggests that dispersal can reach 750 m on occasion (Spencer 1964), although distances as far as 2.1 km have been suggested during years with higher average summer precipitation (Schueler and Karstad 2013). A limited number of immigration events are, however, sufficient to result in local populations remaining functionally connected, thereby acting as a metapopulation.

As is the case for movements within local populations, long-distance dispersal depends on connectivity and ease of movement across the habitats. Furthermore, maintaining dispersal corridors between local populations could allow individuals to adapt to pressures exerted by environmental conditions (e.g., recurring droughts, pollution, anoxic environment) by progressively moving to areas within or outside of their home range that may have more suitable biophysical attributes. As such, dispersal corridors are essential for a species that has limited movement capabilities and is confined to highly fragmented agricultural and urban landscapes.

4. Threats

4.1. Threat Assessment

4.2. Description of Threats

The threats described below are presented in order of decreasing level of concern.

Urban Development

A number of Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) populations occupy habitats that are highly sought after for residential, commercial and industrial development. The loss and degradation of suitable habitat resulting from these activities are presumably responsible for the bulk of the observed decline for this species (COSEWIC 2008; WCFRTQ 2010).

In the Boisé de la Commune in La Prairie (south shore of Montréal), one of the last remaining and most significant metapopulations for the species in Canada owing to its size, number of breeding wetlands, and large choruses, 44 of the 99 known breeding wetlands were destroyed by urban development over a very short period spanning from 2004 to 2009 (WCFRTQ 2010). Since then, the majority of the remaining wetlands have been either destroyed, degraded or are threatened. The same trend is observed on Île Perrot (west of Montréal), where infilling for residential development resulted in the destruction of 27 of the 80 breeding wetlands between 2004 and 2009, and where at least 14 other wetlands were threatened (WCFRTQ 2010). Many sites in western Quebec (Outaouais) and eastern Ontario show similar patterns of habitat destruction, particularly at the urban/agricultural interface (Sanders 1970; Seburn et al. 2008, 2011; WCFRTQ 2010; Schueler and Karstad 2012b).

The negative effects of urbanisation near suitable Western Chorus Frog habitats (hereafter referred to as edge effects) also include changes to hydrology caused by soil impermeability and drainage, increased sedimentation and pollution (including the deposit of waste), increased interactions with introduced animal and plant species or with native animals that benefit from contact with humans (e.g., raccoons), and effects on the local micro-climate (Hamer and McDonnell 2008). Collectively, these effects exert continuous pressures on habitats and individuals.

Urban development also leads to habitat fragmentation, which further isolates the local populations. The resulting decrease in immigration increases the likelihood of a local population becoming extinct (Hanski et al. 1995), namely by the absence of a rescue effect. In the longer term, there may also be a decrease in genetic diversity, in the survival rate of individuals (Hitchings and Beebee 1997) and in the capacity of the metapopulation to persist in time.

Intensification of Agriculture

Intensive agriculture has led to filling, draining (including through topographic levelling) and forest clearing in the St. Lawrence Lowlands, resulting in extensive habitat loss and degradation as well as reduced connectivity (COSEWIC 2008). The situation is particularly acute in the Montérégie region, where natural habitats only covered 33% of the landscape in 2001 (Latendresse et al. 2008) and where most Western Chorus Frog populations found in agricultural landscapes are surrounded by annual crops.

In the Outaouais region, half of the Western Chorus Frog populations are in agricultural landscapes (WCFRTQ 2010) and mostly on lands where soils are better suited for less-intensive agriculture (e.g., 86% of the fields are used to grow perennial crops; livestock; Jobin et al. 2004; also see Gagné 2011). Furthermore, the crop rotation cycle is generally longer (6 to 16 years) than the provincial average of 5 years (see Gagné 2011). Overall, this has resulted in fewer changes to natural drainage patterns and facilitated the maintenance of Western Chorus Frog local populations (Bonin and Galois 1996). High market prices for annual crops are however adding pressure to convert these fields to more intensive agriculture (Daniel Toussaint, personal communication).

There is less information that establishes a direct link between agricultural intensification and Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) populations in Ontario. In their Ottawa study, despite a 35% reduction in the occupancy of sites surveyed repeatedly since the 1970s, Seburn et al. (2011) observed no significant changes in land-use variables within a 1-km radius. On the other hand, east of Ottawa and north of Renfrew, Schueler and Karstad (2012b) found that the species had disappeared from large areas where the only apparent change in land use was agricultural intensification.

Climate Change

Climate change can impact Western Chorus Frog habitat by affecting the duration of flooding (hydroperiod) of the temporary ponds in which the species breeds. Indeed, reduced accumulations of snow, faster spring snowmelt, and prolonged periods of drought would cause ponds to dry up more quickly and reduce the breeding success of the Western Chorus Frog (Bonin and Galois 1996; Barnett et al. 2005). More generally, changes in weather patterns (precipitation, drought) can alter the population dynamics of a number of amphibian species, including the Western Chorus Frog (Walls et al. 2013). In a laboratory study, Amburgey et al. (2012) recently found that that the Boreal Chorus Frog has limited potential to adapt to reduced hydroperiods.

Among other effects, climate change could also influence vegetation structure and composition, including plant succession patterns (Blaustein et al. 2010) which may in turn affect Western Chorus Frogs. The magnitude of this threat, however, remains unknown.

Pesticides and Fertilizers

The toxic and mutagenic effects (e.g., deformities, feminization of males) of pesticides have been observed on many amphibian species, including Western Chorus Frogs, both in natural habitats (see Mazzacano and Black 2013) and in laboratory studies (Bishop 1992; Berril et al. 1997). Non-selective pesticides such as the neonicotinoids have also been shown to reduce insect prey populations (Colburn et al. 1993, Wickramasinghe et al. 2004; Mineau and Palmer 2013; Hallmannet al. 2014). Neonicotinoids are generally used on agricultural lands, but have been detected in adjoining wetlands (Mainet al. 2014) and waterways in Canada (Environment Canada 2011; Xinget al. 2013). Mineau and Palmer (2013) suggested that the effects of neonicotinoids may not be limited to the farm scale, but likely expand to the watershed or regional scale. Although this conclusion was reached using bird data, it also likely applies to amphibians and implies that all life cycle stages in aquatic and terrestrial habitats could be affected.

The use of the insecticide BTi to control West Nile Virus is also increasing, owing to considerations related to public health and the comfort of urban residents. These pesticides have the potential to affect Western Chorus Frog local populations in or near urban areas.

Fertilizers also constitute a threat. In certain areas of intensive agriculture with few riparian buffer strips, the concentration of nitrates reaches levels recognized as problematic for the hatching and growth of amphibians, including the Western Chorus Frog (Hecnar 1995).

Expansion and Maintenance of Linear Infrastructures

The expansion of the network of linear infrastructures (e.g., roads, trails, right-of-ways) is a threat to the species throughout its range. In addition to resulting in direct mortality of individuals and the spread of invasive plant species, linear infrastructures can act as barriers to dispersal and thus contribute to habitat fragmentation (COSEWIC 2008). In Quebec, many breeding wetlands that became isolated because of anthropogenic structures were abandoned after a few years, despite the continued presence of suitable habitat (Picard and Desroches 2004). Maintenance of roadside ditches, utility and pipeline right-of-ways may also adversely affect individuals and render the habitat unsuitable (e.g., creating slopes that are too steep, drainage, stabilizing materials; WCFRTQ 2000). However, when conducted in the appropriate period and favouring the maintenance of suitable habitat conditions, the maintenance of infrastructures can contribute to the maintenance of local populations.

With respect to trails, frogs sometimes use puddles in ruts created by off-road vehicles. These ruts act as ecological traps because there is an increased risk that individuals will be crushed (Galois and Ouellet 2005). In some cases, these puddles could also dry up prematurely, thereby preventing the metamorphosis of tadpoles into adults. The magnitude of this threat remains unknown.

Habitat Succession

Although the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) sometimes breeds in mature forests near hard edges, it prefers open habitats (Bonin and Galois 1996). When agriculture is abandoned on marginal land, succession towards more mature forests begins. This may affect the hydroperiod, particularly when shrubs or persistent residues left by dense cattails and Reed Canary Grass increase the time necessary to thaw the wetland and to raise their temperature (Skelly and Meir 1997; Whiting 2004). Such changes in some of the breeding sites appear to have caused the extirpation of some local populations of the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) in Quebec and Ontario (Bonin and Galois 1996; Seburn and Gunson 2011; Schueler and Karstad 2014). The importance of this threat is unknown and may be site-specific.

5. Population and Distribution Objectives

The population and distribution objectives for the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) in Canada are:

• Over the short-term (2015-2025): maintain the areas of occupied suitable habitat as well as the breeding population level within each local population and, where a metapopulation is present, maintain the connectivity among the local populations constituting the metapopulation.
• Over the long-term (2015-2035): ensure the viability of each local population and of metapopulations, where present, by increasing the areas of occupied suitable habitat, the breeding population level within each local population, as well as the connectivity among the local populations constituting a metapopulation. Also, where technically and biologically feasible, restore historical or extirpated local populations or create new habitats.

These objectives address the species' long-term decline, which was the reason for its designation as Threatened (COSEWIC 2008). The 10-year time frame for the short term objectives corresponds to the period between successive COSEWIC assessments of a species' status and is considered reasonable given the challenge of simply maintaining the areas of occupied suitable habitat that the current number of Western Chorus Frog local populations represents. As for the long term objectives, ensuring that all local populations and metapopulations are viable is necessary given the substantial losses already sustained, the continued pressures affecting the species and its habitats and its sensitivity to climatic events.

The objectives of the federal recovery strategy are in line with those of the provincial Recovery plan and Action plan for the Western Chorus Frog in Quebec (WCFRTQ 2000; update in prep.), which are to maintain the remaining suitable habitat, restore degraded habitat and create new habitat or structures (e.g., amphibian crossings) to promote the viability of local populations by increasing their abundance and connectivity. There is no equivalent document for the province of Ontario since the species is not listed under the Ontario Endangered Species Act, 2007.

These objectives may be reviewed during the development of the report required five years after this strategy is posted to assess the implementation of the strategy and the progress towards meeting its objectives (SARA s. 46).

6. Broad Strategies and General Approaches to Meet Objectives

6.1. Actions Already Completed or Currently Underway

• Multiple projects targeting the Western Chorus Frog on federal, provincial and private lands with funding from the Habitat Stewardship Program for Species at Risk, the Interdepartmental Recovery Fund and the Aboriginal Fund for Species at Risk.
• Small-scale restoration and creation of wetlands for Western Chorus Frogs, including reintroduction of individuals (e.g., Cook 1992 in Ontario; Lyne Bouthillier 2001 in Quebec).

Quebec

• Targeted surveys (1993–2014 in the Outaouais region; 1992–2014 in the Montérégie region) and a survey of all known breeding wetlands in 2004–2005 and 2014 (Picard and Desroches 2004); volunteer surveys through the Marsh Monitoring Program (since 2004).
• Creation of the Western Chorus Frog recovery team (1998).
• Publication of a provincial recovery plan in 2000 and the 1999–2009 recovery assessment report (WCFRTQ 2000, 2010).
• Publication and implementation of 11 regional conservation plans (Bouthillier and Léveillé 2002; Centre d'information sur l'environnement de Longueuil and WCFRTQ 2006; Angers et al. 2007, 2008a, b, c, d, e, f, g; Bernard 2010; Gagné 2010; Tanguay et al. 2012).
• Publication and implementation of a standardized population monitoring protocol (Daigle et al. 2011)
• Publication of a protocol for the creation of temporary wetlands (Montpetit et al. 2010).
• Completion of a number of studies on habitat requirements and genetic characterization of populations (Ouellet and Leheurteux 1997; Whiting 2004; Rogic et al., 2015).
• Ex situ breeding program at the Montréal Biodôme and the Ecomuseum from 2008 to 2014.
• Outreach activities for landowners, farmers, municipalities, residents and students and the signing of stewardship agreements since the early 2000s.
• Signing of a biodiversity conservation agreement between the provincial government and Hydro-Québec (2001).
• Preservation of significant habitats (e.g., Boisé du Tremblay, which is home to about 25% of Western Chorus Frogs in the Montérégie region; Bois de Brossard, ~ 530 ha; Bois de Boucherville, ~ 188 ha; Breckenridge).

Ontario

• First International Conference on Northeastern populations of Pseudacris triseriata, Kemptville, Ontario, March 2001.
• Population monitoring through the Marsh Monitoring Program (since 1994)
• Collection of information on amphibians through Frogwatch Ontario (amphibian monitoring project).
• Targeted surveys in southern Ontario in 1992, 2006 and 2012 (Cook 1992; Schueler 2006; Schueler and Karstad 2012b).
• The Ontario Herpetofaunal Summary Atlas made it possible to collect information on various amphibian and reptile sightings throughout Ontario (also see Oldham and Weller 2000).
• The new Ontario Reptile and Amphibian Atlas has improved knowledge of the distribution and status of various species through the collection of information on known sightings throughout the province, the implementation of field surveys and the amalgamation of existing databases.

6.2. Strategic Direction for Recovery

7. Critical Habitat

7.1. Identification of the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS)'s Critical Habitat

SARA defines critical habitat as "the habitat that is necessary for the survival or recovery of a listed wildlife species." For the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS), critical habitat is partially identified in this recovery strategy to the extent possible using the best available information. The schedule of studies (Section 7.2) outlines the activities required to complete the identification of critical habitat to meet the population and distribution objectives. As new information becomes available, more precise boundaries may be established and additional critical habitat may be identified.

The identification of critical habitat for the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) is based on two criteria: habitat occupancy and habitat suitability.

7.1.1. Habitat Occupancy

This criterion refers to the geographic locations where there is a reasonable degree of certainty of recurrent use by the species (an indicator of breeding habitat and adjacent terrestrial habitat suitability) and of their contribution to the dispersal of individuals between adjacent local populations (an indicator of sustained metapopulation processes).

Habitat occupancy is established by selecting the data obtained from point counts conducted during the breeding period and other records:

• dating from the year 1992 or later;
  AND
• covering at least two separate years within a 20-year period, with at least 1 of the records dating from the last decade.

The period starting in 1992 corresponds to the first systematic surveys of breeding wetlands in Quebec (1992–1993), but also to the threshold beyond which a record is considered historical in conservation data centres (i.e. 20 years for the Ontario Natural Heritage Information Centre (NHIC) and the Centre de données sur le patrimoine naturel du Québec (CDPNQ)). Owing to the dynamic nature of Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) habitat, incorporating a more recent record as part of the habitat occupancy criteria also increases the confidence that the suitable habitat is still available.

The data used to identify critical habitat in the present recovery strategy are inclusively from 1992 to 2011 in Ontario and from 1992 to 2012 in Quebec.

7.1.2. Habitat Suitability

This criterion refers to the biophysical attributes of habitats where individuals can meet the needs associated with the various stages of their life cycle (e.g. mating, egg-laying, tadpole metamorphosis, foraging, hibernation, dispersal) in Canada (see Table 3). For aquatic stages, all areas of suitable breeding wetlands up to 300 m from a record are considered critical habitat. For terrestrial stages, all areas of suitable habitat are incorporated up to 300 m from the boundaries of critical habitat for aquatic stages to allow for the completion of the species' annual life cycle (Desroches et al. 2002; Semlitsch and Bodie 2003; Ouellet and Leheurteux 2007).

To maintain connectivity between local populations and sustain the processes essential for the persistence of metapopulations, the present recovery strategy also includes dispersal habitats as part of the critical habitat. They correspond to the areas of suitable habitat up to 300 m from any dispersal habitat type (table 3) connecting two breeding wetlands that meet the habitat occupancy criteria and that are separated by a maximum distance of 900 m. This is three times the average maximum distance travelled by the species within its annual life cycle and is suggested by NatureServe (2002) as a precautionary value for linking habitats together on the basis of individuals' movements. It is also in the same range as the 750 m distance for long-distance dispersal reported by Spencer (1964) and within the maximum dispersal distance of 2.1 km suggested by Schueler and Karstad (2013). Until more information is known about local habitat use by the species, dispersal habitat identified as critical habitat is bounded by minimum convex polygons encompassing local populations that form a metapopulation. These polygons are based on the known dispersal distances provided above and are referred to as critical habitat units.

7.1.3. Application of the Critical Habitat Criteria

Critical habitat for the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) is partially identified in this recovery strategy because data were inadequate (e.g. poor spatial accuracy, only one year of information) to proceed with critical habitat identification at some known local populations and because unsurveyed local populations could exist in the Canadian Shield faunal province. Critical habitat corresponds to the areas of suitable habitat within polygons combining breeding wetlands that have been used on at least 2 occasions within a 20-year period (including at least once in the past 10 years), adjacent terrestrial habitats, and the dispersal habitats that connect them that meet the criteria set out in section 7.1.2. A total of 267 critical habitat units covering approximately 33,693 ha are identified, including 218 units in Ontario (17,418 ha) and 49 units in Quebec (16,275 ha).

In Appendix A, Table A-1 and Table A-2 and figure A-1, figure A-2, figure A-3, figure A-4, figure A-5, figure A-6 and figure A-7 present the 10 km x 10 km standardized UTM grid (red outlines) and the critical habitat units (yellow polygons) for the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) in Canada. The 10 km x 10 km standardized UTM grid indicates the general geographic area containing critical habitat and can be used for various purposes, including land-use planning and environmental assessment. To respect provincial data-sharing agreements, detailed polygon information (in yellow in the figures for Quebec's critical habitat) is not provided in Ontario figures. However, this information is available and may be requested on a need-to-know basis by contacting Environment Canada – Canadian Wildlife Service at: RecoveryPlanning_Pl@ec.gc.ca

Although individuals may only occupy a small portion of suitable habitat within a critical habitat unit at any given time, the entire suitable habitat complex within the unit is identified as critical habitat. This consideration is particularly important given that the locations of local populations have been observed to shift over a relatively short period of time and that the data used to map critical habitat provide only a snapshot of the situation in time (Nathalie Tessier, 2013, personal communication). It also takes into account the fact that physical barriers (e.g., housing developments, highways) adjacent to breeding wetlands result in home ranges of varying sizes and shapes. Lastly, it provides the necessary space to restore or create habitats within or between neighbouring local populations, thereby eventually increasing the area of occupied habitat and connectivity.

Any anthropogenic structures (e.g., houses, paved surfaces) and any areas (e.g. drained agricultural fields, sewage treatment/settling ponds) that do not have the characteristics of suitable habitat for the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) are not identified as critical habitat. Any significant disruption in the continuity of the habitat that results in a dispersal barrier (e.g., multi-lane highway, large watercourse) would be considered a boundary edge for critical habitat in that site (i.e. two separate critical habitat units would result if the habitat occupancy criteria are still met).

7.2. Schedule of Studies to Identify Critical Habitat

7.3. Activities Likely to Result in the Destruction of Critical Habitat

Understanding what constitutes destruction of critical habitat is necessary for the protection and management of critical habitat. Destruction is determined on a case by case basis. Destruction would result if part of the critical habitat were degraded, either permanently or temporarily, such that it would not serve its function when needed by the species. Destruction may result from a single or multiple activities at one point in time or from the cumulative effects of one or more activities over time. Activities described in Table 5 are examples of those likely to cause destruction of critical habitat for the species; however, destructive activities are not necessarily limited to those listed. It should be noted that some activities that would result in the destruction of critical habitat if conducted during the breeding season can also contribute to the maintenance of suitable habitat conditions in the long term (e.g., by keeping the breeding habitats open).

8. Measuring Progress

The performance indicators presented below provide a way to define and measure progress in achieving the population and distribution objectives.

• Over the short-term (2015-2025): the areas of occupied suitable habitat, the breeding population level within each local population and, where a metapopulation is present, the connectivity among the local populations constituting the metapopulation is maintained.
• Over the long-term (2015-2035): the viability of each local population and, where present, of metapopulations is ensured by increasing the areas of occupied suitable habitat, the breeding population level within each local population, as well as the connectivity among the local populations constituting a metapopulation. Where technically and biologically feasible, historical or extirpated local populations have been restored and new habitats have been created.

The year of reference for measures of progress related to Western Chorus Frog habitat components (areas, connectivity) is 2012, the last year of data used to for the identification of critical habitat in the present version of the recovery strategy. The year of reference for breeding population level and local population viability corresponds to the most recent year in which a local population was surveyed at the moment of critical habitat identification in the present version of the recovery strategy (2012 or before).

9. Statement on Action Plans

One or more action plans for the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) will be posted on the Species at Risk Public Registry by the end of 2020.

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Appendix A. Critical Habitat for the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS)

Figures of the Western Chorus Frog (GLSLCS) Critical Habitat in Quebec

Appendix B. Effects on the Environment and other Species

A strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is conducted on all SARA recovery planning documents, in accordance with the Cabinet Directive on the Environmental Assessment of Policy, Plan and Program Proposals. The purpose of a SEA is to incorporate environmental considerations into the development of public policies, plans, and program proposals to support environmentally sound decision making and to determine whether the outcomes of a recovery planning document could affect any component of the environment or any of the goals or targets in the Federal Sustainable Development Strategy's (FSDS).

Recovery planning is intended to benefit species at risk and biodiversity in general. However, it is recognized that strategies may also inadvertently lead to environmental effects beyond the intended benefits. The planning process based on national guidelines directly incorporates consideration of all environmental effects, with a particular focus on possible impacts upon non-target species or habitats. The results of the SEA are incorporated directly into the strategy itself, but are also summarized below in this statement.

A number of amphibian and reptile species are likely to benefit from conservation efforts for the Western Chorus Frog, including the Grey Treefrog (Hyla versicolor), Northern Spring Peeper (Pseudacris crucifer), Green Frog (Lithobates clamitans melanota), Leopard Frog (Lithobates pipiens) and American Toad (Anaxyrus americanus). In permanent marshes, the Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis), King Rail (Rallus elegans), Blanding's Turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) and Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) may also share similar habitats. No adverse effects on other species or the environment are anticipated.