Recovery Strategy for the Pallid Bat (Antrozous pallidus) in Canada - 2017

1. Introduction
2. Document information
3. Part 1
4. Part 2

• Part 1 – Federal Addition to the Recovery Plan for the Pallid Bat (Antrozous pallidus) in British Columbia, prepared by Environment and Climate Change Canada
  • Table of contents
  • Preface
  • Acknowledgements
  • Additions and modifications to the adopted document
  • 1 Critical habitat
    • 1.1 Identification of the species' critical habitat
    • 1.2 Schedule of studies to identify Critical habitat
    • 1.3 Activities likely to result in destruction of critical habitat
  • 2 Statement on action plans
  • 3 Effects on the environment and other species
  • 4 References

• Figure 1. Critical habitat for Pallid Bat in the Okanagan Valley (north) of B.C. is represented by the shaded pink polygons (roosting and foraging critical habitat), and the shaded yellow polygons (additional foraging critical habitat), where the criteria set out in Section 1.1 are met.
• Figure 2. Critical habitat for Pallid Bat in the Okanagan Valley (south) of B.C. is represented by the shaded pink polygons (roosting and foraging critical habitat), and the shaded yellow polygons (additional foraging critical habitat), where the criteria set out in Section 1.1 are met.

• Table 1. Schedule of studies required to identify critical habitat for the Pallid Bat
• Table 2. Examples of activities likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat for the Pallid Bat. IUCN Threat numbers are in accordance with the IUCN-CMP (World Conservation Union–Conservation Measures Partnership) unified threats classification system (CMP 2010).

• Part 2 – Recovery Plan for the Pallid Bat (Antrozous pallidus) in British Columbia, prepared by the Pallid Bat Recovery Team for the British Columbia Ministry of Environment.
  • Table of contents
    • Acknowledgements
    • Executive summary
    • Recovery feasibility summary
  • 1 COSEWIC species assessment information
  • 2 Species status information
  • 3 Species information
    • 3.1 Species description
    • 3.2 Populations and distribution
    • 3.3 Habitat and biological needs of the Pallid Bat
      • 3.3.1 Roosting habitat
      • 3.3.2 Foraging habitat
    • 3.4 Ecological role
    • 3.5 Limiting factors
  • 4 Threats
    • 4.1 Threat assessment
    • 4.2 Description of threats
  • 5 Recovery goal and objectives
    • 5.1 Recovery (population and distribution) goal
    • 5.2 Rationale for the recovery (population and distribution) goal
    • 5.3 Recovery objectives
  • 6 Approaches to meet recovery objectives
    • 6.1 Actions already completed or underway
    • 6.2 Recovery action table
    • 6.3 Narrative to support recovery action table
      • 6.3.1 Habitat protection, restoration, and private land stewardship
      • 6.3.2 Species and population management
  • 7 Species survival and recovery habitat
    • 7.1 Biophysical description of the species' survival/recovery habitat
    • 7.2 Spatial description of the species' survival/recovery habitat
  • 8 Measuring progress
  • 9 Effects on other species
  • 10 References

• Figure 1. Global distribution of Pallid Bat, excluding an isolated population in Cuba (Pallid Bat Recovery Team 2008).
• Figure 2. Estimated Pallid Bat distribution (solid orange) in British Columbia created by buffering capture records by 4.5 km, and then clipping the areas to Bunchgrass and Ponderosa Pine biogeoclimatic subzones (BGxh1 and PPxh1). The potential range (checkered orange and grey) is created using the same methodology but includes visual and acoustic records that have not been verified by capture data. The potential range highlight areas for more intensive surveys but these areas are not included in the area of occupancy and other range/occupied area estimations.

• Table 1. Summary of essential functions, features, and attributes of Pallid Bat habitat in British Columbia.
• Table 2. Threat classification table for Pallid Bat in British Columbia.
• Table 3. Examples of areas in the south Okanagan that are being managed to maintain natural ecological systems. New properties are regularly added to protected areas. This is not a complete list. Pallid Bat has not been confirmed to use all of the habitat listed.
• Table 4. Existing mechanisms that afford habitat protection for the Pallid Bat.
• Table 5. Recovery actions and performance measures for Pallid Bat for each recovery objective.

For copies of the recovery strategy, or for additional information on species at risk, including the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) Status Reports, residence descriptions, action plans, and other related recovery documents, please visit the Species at Risk (SAR) Public Registry.

Cover illustration: © Barry Mansell

Également disponible en français sous le titre
« Programme de rétablissement de la chauve souris blonde (Antrozous pallidus) au Canada »

Content (excluding the illustrations) may be used without permission, with appropriate credit to the source.

The federal recovery strategy for the Pallid Bat in Canada consists of two parts:

Part 1 – Federal Addition to the Recovery Plan for the Pallid Bat (Antrozous pallidus) in British Columbia, prepared by Environment and Climate Change Canada.

Part 2 – Recovery Plan for the Pallid Bat (Antrozous pallidus) in British Columbia, prepared by the Pallid Bat Recovery Team for the British Columbia Ministry of Environment.

The federal, provincial, and territorial government signatories under the the Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk (1996) agreed to establish complementary legislation and programs that provide for effective protection of species at risk throughout Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act (S.C. 2002, c.29) (SARA), the federal competent ministers are responsible for the preparation of recovery strategies for listed Extirpated, Endangered, and Threatened species and are required to report on progress within five years after the publication of the final document on the SAR Public Registry.

The Minister of Environment and Climate Change is the competent minister under SARA for the Pallid Bat and has prepared the federal component of this recovery strategy (Part 1), as per section 37 of SARA. To the extent possible, it has been prepared in cooperation with the Province of British Columbia and the Pallid Bat Recovery Team, as per section 39(1) of SARA. SARA section 44 allows the Minister to adopt all or part of an existing plan for the species if it meets the requirements under SARA for content (sub-sections 41(1) or (2)). The Province of British Columbia provided the attached recovery plan for the Pallid Bat (Part 2) as science advice to the jurisdictions responsible for managing the species in British Columbia. It was prepared in cooperation with Environment and Climate Change Canada.

Success in the recovery of this species depends on the commitment and cooperation of many different constituencies that will be involved in implementing the directions set out in this strategy and will not be achieved by Environment and Climate Change Canada, or any other jurisdiction alone. All Canadians are invited to join in supporting and implementing this strategy for the benefit of the Pallid Bat and Canadian society as a whole.

This recovery strategy will be followed by one or more action plans that will provide information on recovery measures to be taken by Environment and Climate Change Canada and other jurisdictions and/or organizations involved in the conservation of the species. Implementation of this strategy is subject to appropriations, priorities, and budgetary constraints of the participating jurisdictions and organizations.

The recovery strategy sets the strategic direction to arrest or reverse the decline of the species, including identification of critical habitat to the extent possible. It provides all Canadians with information to help take action on species conservation. When critical habitat is identified, either in a recovery strategy or an action plan, SARA requires that critical habitat then be protected.

In the case of critical habitat identified for terrestrial species including migratory birds SARA requires that critical habitat identified in a federally protected area^Footnote1 be described in the Canada Gazette within 90 days after the recovery strategy or action plan that identified the critical habitat is included in the public registry. A prohibition against destruction of critical habitat under ss. 58(1) will apply 90 days after the description of the critical habitat is published in the Canada Gazette.

For critical habitat located on other federal lands, the competent minister must either make a statement on existing legal protection or make an order so that the prohibition against destruction of critical habitat applies.

If the critical habitat for a migratory bird is not within a federal protected area and is not on federal land, within the exclusive economic zone or on the continental shelf of Canada, the prohibition against destruction can only apply to those portions of the critical habitat that are habitat to which the Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1994 applies as per SARA ss. 58(5.1) and ss. 58(5.2).

For any part of critical habitat located on non-federal lands, if the competent minister forms the opinion that any portion of critical habitat is not protected by provisions in or measures under SARA or other Acts of Parliament, or the laws of the province or territory, SARA requires that the Minister recommend that the Governor in Council make an order to prohibit destruction of critical habitat. The discretion to protect critical habitat on non-federal lands that is not otherwise protected rests with the Governor in Council.

The development of this recovery strategy addition was led by Tanya Luszcz, with input and support from Kella Sadler and Matt Huntley (Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service - Pacific Region (ECCC CWS-PAC). Additional comments and/or collaborative support was provided by Brian Campbell and Paul Johanson (ECCC CWS – National Capital Region), Orville Dyer (B.C. Forests, Lands and Natural Resources Operations), Purnima Govindarajulu, and Peter Fielder (B.C. Ministry of Environment). Species experts Daniela Rambaldini, Mark Brigham, Mike Sarell, Allison Haney, Cori Lausen, Dave Johnson, Tom O'Shea, Greg Falxa, and Lori Pruitt (US Fish and Wildlife Service) also contributed valuable inputs on bat data and/or related science advice. Danielle Yu and Sean Butler (ECCC CWS-PAC) provided additional assistance with mapping and figure preparation.

The following sections have been included to address specific requirements of the federal Species at Risk Act (SARA) that are not addressed in the Recovery Plan for the Pallid Bat (Antrozous pallidus) in British Columbia (Part 2 of this document, referred to henceforth as "the provincial recovery plan") and/or to provide updated or additional information.

Under SARA, there are specific requirements and processes set out regarding the protection of critical habitat. Therefore, statements in the provincial recovery plan referring to protection of survival/recovery habitat may not directly correspond to federal requirements. Recovery measures dealing with the protection of habitat are adopted; however, whether these measures will result in protection of critical habitat under SARA will be assessed following publication of the final federal recovery strategy.

This section replaces section 7 "Species Survival and Recovery Habitat" in the provincial recovery plan.

Section 41 (1)(c) of SARA requires that recovery strategies include an identification of the species' critical habitat, to the extent possible, as well as examples of activities that are likely to result in its destruction. The provincial recovery plan for the Pallid Bat includes a description of the biophysical attributes of survival/recovery habitat. This science advice was used to inform the following critical habitat sections in this federal recovery strategy. Detailed methods and decision-making processes relating to critical habitat identification are archived in a supporting document.

Critical habitat is partially identified in this recovery strategy. A schedule of studies has been included that describes the activities required to complete the identification of critical habitat in support of the population and distribution objectives^Footnote2 for the species.

Critical habitat for Pallid Bat is identified in this document to the extent possible; as responsible jurisdictions and/or other interested parties conduct research to address knowledge gaps, the existing critical habitat methodology and identification may be modified and/or refined to reflect new knowledge.

Geospatial location of areas containing critical habitat

Critical habitat for the Pallid Bat is identified based on all available verified occurrence records^Footnote3 for the species, in the southern Okanagan Valley in south-central British Columbia (Ponderosa Pine very hot (PPxh1), and Bunchgrass very hot (BGxh1) biogeoclimatic ecosystem subzones (Meidinger and Pojar 1991)). Within these environments, Pallid Bats require both roosting and foraging habitat to support their life history stages.

Roosting habitat is necessary to support the activities and biological needs of all life history stages (including sleeping, mating, raising young, cover from predators, torpor, and hibernation). Roosting habitat is mainly comprised by cliffs and rock crevices, which are stable features on the landscape; however, Pallid Bats will also use trees for night roosting (e.g., Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), deciduous trees in riparian areas, and fruit trees in orchards). Pallid Bats appear to be loyal to specific roosting areas, and they are continually used across generations (Rambaldini and Brigham 2004). Critical habitat for roosting is identified based on: (1) known/observed roosting locations, as well as (2) the application of habitat suitability models (Warman et al. 1998^Footnote4; Sinnerman 1982^Footnote5) to other types of occurrence observations (e.g. observations while flying, vocalizations, mist-netting and dead bats). Where roosting habitat that is of high to moderate suitability for Pallid Bat roosting is found within foraging distance (4.5 km) of an occurrence observation, it is identified as roosting critical habitat.

Foraging habitat is necessary to support adults and volant (capable of flight) juveniles between April and October. The specific area around roosts used as foraging habitat by the Pallid Bat in B.C. requires additional research; however, the best available information (i.e., existing data from B.C. and the U.S.A.) supports a 4.5 km maximum average foraging distance.^Footnote6 Therefore the area containing foraging critical habitat is identified as those areas within 4.5 km of roosting critical habitat.

Biophysical attributes of critical habitat

• Roosting habitat: Naturally occurring rock crevices (≥ 3 cm wide; Miller and Jensen 2013; Schorr and Siemers 2013) of all orientations (from vertical to horizontal) within cliff faces and talus slopes:
  • Day Roosts (used April to October, inclusive): Naturally occurring rock crevices within cliff faces, or large diameter talus
  • Hibernacula (used October to April, inclusive^Footnote7): Day roost locations, deep narrow crevices inside caverns, and caves
• Foraging Habitat (used April to October, inclusive):
  • Natural features (preferred use): natural grassland, shrub-steppe habitat, or open forest (Ponderosa Pine) habitat types, talus slopes that support larger, ground-based prey
  • Anthropogenic features (opportunistic use): agricultural and/or modified habitats that support prey (large arthropods, small vertebrates), including ranch pastures, vineyards, and old fruit orchards, gravel roads

The areas containing critical habitat for the Pallid Bat (totalling 35,945.6 ha) are presented in Figures 1 and 2. Critical habitat for the Pallid Bat in Canada occurs within the shaded polygons (units) shown on this map, where the biophysical attributes described in the above section are met. As the Pallid Bat will forage in/near areas characterized as roosting habitat, the pink polygons (units) represent areas containing roosting and foraging habitat, whereas the yellow polygons (units) outside the roosting areas represent only foraging habitat. Unsuitable habitats such as the running surface of paved roads and railways, open water (lakes, rivers), and all habitat above 800 m in elevation are not known to possess the attributes required by the Pallid Bat for roosting and/or foraging, and they are not identified as critical habitat even when they occur within the shaded polygons (i.e., detailed geospatial units containing critical habitat).

A schedule of studies has been included to provide the information necessary to complete the identification of critical habitat. The identification of critical habitat will be updated when the information becomes available, either in a revised recovery strategy or action plan(s).

The following schedule of studies (Table 1) describes the activities required to complete the identification of critical habitat for the Pallid Bat. This section addresses parts of critical habitat that are known to be missing from the identification based on information that is available at this time. Actions required to address future refinement of critical habitat (such as fine-tuning boundaries, and/or providing greater detail about use of biophysical attributes) are not included here. Priority recovery actions to address these kinds of knowledge gaps are outlined in the recovery planning table in the adopted provincial recovery plan.

Understanding what constitutes destruction of critical habitat is necessary for the protection and management of critical habitat. Destruction is determined on a case by case basis. Destruction would result if part of the critical habitat were degraded, either permanently or temporarily, such that it would not serve its function when needed by the species. Destruction may result from a single or multiple activities at one point in time or from the cumulative effects of one or more activities over time. Activities described in Table 1 include those likely to cause destruction of critical habitat for the species; however, destructive activities are not limited to those listed.

One or more action plans will be posted on the Species at Risk Public Registry by 2022.

A strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is conducted on all SARA recovery planning documents, in accordance with the Cabinet Directive on the Environmental Assessment of Policy, Plan and Program Proposals. The purpose of a SEA is to incorporate environmental considerations into the development of public policies, plans, and program proposals to support environmentally sound decision-making and to evaluate whether the outcomes of a recovery planning document could affect any component of the environment or any of the Federal Sustainable Development Strategy's (FSDS) goals and targets.

Recovery planning is intended to benefit species at risk and biodiversity in general. However, it is recognized that strategies may also inadvertently lead to environmental effects beyond the intended benefits. The planning process based on national guidelines directly incorporates consideration of all environmental effects, with a particular focus on possible impacts upon non-target species or habitats. The results of the SEA are incorporated directly into the strategy itself, but are also summarized below in this statement.

The provincial recovery plan for the Pallid Bat contains a section describing the effects of recovery activities on other species (i.e., Section 9). Environment and Climate Change Canada adopts this section of the provincial recovery plan as the statement on effects of recovery activities on the environment and other species.

Baker, M.D., M.J. Lacki, G.A. Falxa, P.L. Droppelman, R.A. Slack and S.A. Slankard. 2008. Habitat use of Pallid Bats in coniferous forests of northern California. Northwest Science, 82(4):269-275.

Bell, G.P. 1982. Behavioral and ecological aspects of gleaning by a desert insectivorous bat, Antrozous pallidus (Chiroptera:Vespertilionidae). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.10:217-223.

Brown, P.E., R.D. Berry, K.L. Milner and H. Johnson. 1997. Roosting behavior of pallid bats Antrozous pallidus in the California desert as determined by radio-telemetry. Bat Research News 38: 100.

Chapman, K., K. McGuinness, and R.M. Brigham. 1994. Status of the Pallid Bat in British Columbia. BC Environment, Victoria, BC Wildlife Working Report No. WR-61. 32 pp.

CMP (Conservation Measures Partnership). 2010. Threats Taxonomy.

Lewis, S.E. 1996. Low roost-site fidelity in pallid bats: associated factors and effect on group stability. Behavior, Ecology, Sociobiology 39:335-344.

Meidinger, D. and J. Pojar. 1991. Ecosystems of British Columbia, B.C. Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC. Special Report No. 6. 330 pp.

Miller, J.C. and W.E. Jensen. 2013. Roost-site characteristics of the pallid bat (Antrozous pallidus) in the Red Hills of Kansas and Oklahoma. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 116:1-2, 1-10

Rambaldini, D.A. and R.M. Brigham. 2004. Habitat use and roost selection by Pallid bats (Antrozous pallidus) in the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia. Final Report prepared for the British Columbia Ministry of Land, Water and Air Protection, Osoyoos (Nk'Mip) Indian Band, World Wildlife Fund, Canadian Wildlife Service, Habitat Conservation Trust Fund, The Nature Trust of British Columbia, and Public Conservation Trust Fund. 65 p.

Rambaldini, D.A. 2006. Behavioural ecology of Pallid bats (Chiroptera: Antrozous pallidus) in British Columbia. Unpublished report prepared for Osoyoos (Nk'Mip) Indian Band (Oliver), BC Ministry of Environment (Penticton), and Canadian Wildlife Service (Delta). 82 p.

Schorr, R.A. and J.L. Siemers. 2013. Characteristics of Roosts of Male Pallid Bats (Antrozous pallidus) In Southeastern Colorado. The Southwestern Naturalist, 58(4):470-474.

Sinnerman, C. 1982. Cliff Evaluation in the South Okanagan. University of Victoria, Department of Geography, Co-op Work Term Report, available on EcoCat, the Ecological Reports Catalogue, BC Provincial Government. 38 pp. Accessed: 27 August 2014.

Warman, L., S. Robertson, A. Haney and M. Sarell. 1998. Habitat capability and suitability models for 34 wildlife species, using Terrestrial Ecosystem Mapping (1:20,000) in the South Okanagan and Lower Similkameen study area and Forest Cover Mapping (1:20,000) in the Penticton Forest District. Wildlife Branch, BC Ministry of Lands and Parks. Available: http://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/acat/public/welcome.do. Accessed: 27 August 2014.

Jared Hobbs, Hobbs Photo Images Co.

Additional copies can be downloaded from the B.C. Ministry of Environment Recovery Planning webpage

This recovery plan has been prepared by the British Columbia Ministry of Environment, as advice to the responsible jurisdictions and organizations that may be involved in recovering the species. The B.C. Ministry of Environment has received this advice as part of fulfilling its commitments under the Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk in Canada and the Canada–British Columbia Agreement on Species at Risk.

This document identifies the recovery strategies and actions that are deemed necessary, based on the best available scientific and traditional information, to recover Pallid Bat populations in British Columbia. Recovery actions to achieve the goals and objectives identified herein are subject to the priorities and budgetary constraints of participatory agencies and organizations. These goals, objectives, and recovery approaches may be modified in the future to accommodate new findings.

The responsible jurisdictions have had an opportunity to review this document. However, this document does not necessarily represent the official positions of the agencies or the personal views of all individuals.

Success in the recovery of this species depends on the commitment and cooperation of many different constituencies that may be involved in implementing the directions set out in this plan. The B.C. Ministry of Environment encourages all British Columbians to participate in the recovery of Pallid Bat.

Vanessa Craig (EcoLogic Research) prepared this revised version. Brian Campbell (Environment and Climate Change Canada–Canadian Wildlife Service [ECCC–CWS], National Capital Region[NCR]); Matt Huntley, Tanya Luszcz, and Kella Sadler (ECCC–CWS), Pacific Region (PAC), Paul Johanson (CWS-NCR); Peter Fielder and Purnima Govindarajulu (B.C. Ministry of Environment [MOE]); Orville Dyer, Grant Furness, and John Wilmshurst (B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations); Cori Lausen (Wildlife Conservation Society Canada); Mike Sarell (Ophiuchus Consulting), Jared Hobbs (Hemmera Envirochem Inc.), and Jonathan Tillie (B.C. Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure) provided comments on the updated revised version. The revised document builds on the previous version of the recovery strategy prepared by the Pallid Bat Recovery Team (2008; see acknowledgments therein for contributors). The first draft of this updated version of the recovery plan was prepared by Kella Sadler, Matt Huntley, and Tanya Luszcz. Funding was provided by Environment and Climate Change Canada. Threats assessment participants included Mark Brigham (University of Regina), Orville Dyer, Dave Fraser (MOE), Purnima Govindarajulu, Jared Hobbs, Matt Huntley, Tanya Luszcz, Daniela Rambaldini (University of Regina), Mike Sarell, Leah Ramsay (MOE), as well as Leah Westereng and Peter Fielder (facilitators, MOE).

The Pallid Bat(Antrozous pallidus) is a relatively large bat (102–135 mm body length) with long, prominent ears and large eyes. It has a strikingly unique appearance with creamy-white dorsal fur, ivory or white ventral fur, and grey or pinkish brown wing membranes. These bats have been observed in Canada, most commonly from late May to mid-October, in cliff, shrub–steppe, and open ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) habitats below 800 m in the south Okanagan valley of British Columbia.

The Pallid Bat is designated as Threatened in Canada by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) and the species is included on Schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act (SARA). The Threatened designation by COSEWIC is related to the bat's small estimated population size, restricted distribution, restricted availability of roosting habitat, a continued decline in foraging habitat, and because a rescue effect from neighbouring populations in Washington State has been assessed as highly unlikely.

In British Columbia, the Pallid Bat is ranked S2 by the B.C. Conservation Data Centre and is on the provincial Red list. The B.C. Conservation Framework ranks the Pallid Bat as a priority 2 under goal 3 (maintaining the diversity of native species and ecosystems). It is an offence to kill or capture the Pallid Bat under the provincial Wildlife Act.

Known threats to the Pallid Bat in Canada include the emerging threat of white-nose syndrome, as well as the loss and degradation of foraging and roosting habitat from transportation and service corridors, residential development, agricultural development, and recreational activities.

The recovery (population and distribution) goal is to maintain current Pallid Bat populations within their Canadian range.

The following are the recovery objectives for the Pallid Bat:

1. to protect,^Footnote7 manage, and monitor Pallid Bat habitats, including maternity roosts, day roosts, hibernacula, night roosts, and foraging habitat, to ensure that suitable characteristics of the habitat remain available to the species;
2. to determine Pallid Bat population trends and vital rates (e.g., survival rates, reproductive rates);
3. to identify the full range extent of the Pallid Bat in British Columbia, with a focus on identifying the location of maternity roosts and hibernacula;
4. to conduct research into the impact of threats to roosts and foraging habitat (e.g., habitat conversion and development, grazing, fire and fire suppression), threats to bats (e.g., white-nose syndrome, recreational activities, human disturbance, and pesticide use) and effectiveness of recovery actions; and
5. to improve our understanding of key factors contributing to Pallid Bat decline, and possible constraints to recovery.

Based on the following four criteria that Environment and Climate Change Canada uses to establish recovery feasibility, there are some unknowns regarding the feasibility of recovery of the Pallid Bat in British Columbia. However, recovery is deemed feasible and this recovery strategy addresses the unknowns surrounding the feasibility of recovery.

ⁱ Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada.

ⁱⁱ See COSEWIC quantitative criteria and guidelines for the status assessment of wildlife species (Table 2 of the COSEWIC assessment process guidelines).

ⁱⁱⁱ Data source: B.C. Conservation Data Centre (2015) unless otherwise noted.

^iv No = not listed in one of the categories of wildlife that requires special management attention to address the impacts of forest and range activities on Crown land under the Forest and Range Practices Act (FRPA; Province of British Columbia 2002) and/or the impacts of oil and gas activities on Crown land under the Oil and Gas Activities Act (OGAA; Province of British Columbia 2008).

^v Schedule A = designated as wildlife under the B.C. Wildlife Act, which offers it protection from direct persecution and mortality (Province of British Columbia 1982).

^vi Schedule 1 = found on the List of Wildlife Species at Risk under the Species at Risk Act (SARA; Government of Canada 2002).

^vii Red: Includes any indigenous species or subspecies that have, or are candidates for, Extirpated, Endangered, or Threatened status in British Columbia. .S = subnational; N = national; G = global; T = refers to the subspecies level; B = breeding; X = presumed extirpated; H = possibly extirpated; 1 = critically imperiled; 2 = imperiled; 3 = special concern, vulnerable to extirpation or extinction; 4 = apparently secure; 5 = demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure; NA = not applicable; NR = unranked; U = unrankable.

^viii Data source: NatureServe (2015).

^ix Data source: B.C. Ministry of Environment (2009).

^x Six-level scale: Priority 1 (highest priority) through to Priority 6 (lowest priority).

The Pallid Bat(Antrozous pallidus) is a relatively large bat (102–135 mm body length) with long, prominent ears and large eyes (see cover photo). The ears have a series of horizontal pleats that allow Pallid Bats to furl their ears. The dorsal fur is usually cream-coloured with light grey or light brown tips, ventral fur is ivory or white, and wing membranes are grey or pinkish brown. It has scroll-shaped nostrils and small glands on its muzzle that secrete a musky, skunk-like scent (Nagorsen and Brigham 1993).

The Pallid Bat inhabits hot, arid regions across western North America (Figure 1), from southern British Columbia to central Mexico with an isolated population in Cuba (Orr and Silva Taboada 1960; Silva Taboada 1976). Less than 1% of the Pallid Bat's known global distribution is in Canada.

In Canada, Pallid Bat is known only from the semi-arid shrub–steppe of the southern Okanagan Valley, south of Penticton, in south-central British Columbia at elevations lower than 800 m (Figure 2). The species is difficult to detect using standard bat inventory techniques such as netting and acoustic surveys (B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks 1998). The species is rarely captured, likely because of their small population size. Identification through acoustic surveys is difficult because they limit their use of echolocation for foraging; instead, they listen for sounds their prey makes before landing to capture the prey item (Bell 1982; Fuzessery et al. 1993). In addition, their calls are similar to two species with overlapping ranges (Silver-haired Bat [Lasionycteris noctivagans] and Big Brown Bat [Eptesicus fuscus]), which makes them difficult to identify with certainty even when echolocation calls are detected.

The Canadian population is currently estimated at 250–1000 individuals by COSEWIC (2010). COSEWIC (2010) stated this estimate reflected Rambaldini's (2006) statement that "at least" 250 Pallid Bats reside in the Okanagan Valley based on roost surveys; however, this number was considered an underestimate by both Rambaldini and COSEWIC because other areas known to be occupied by Pallid Bat were not surveyed by Rambaldini (2006).

The capture of sexually mature males and lactating females (Schowalter 1980; Grindal et al. 1991; Chapman et al. 1994; Willis and Bast 2000; Rambaldini 2005; Rambaldini 2006; Sarell 2007) confirms that individuals capable of reproduction are present in the population. The capture of individuals with worn teeth suggests that these individuals are not dispersing juveniles or yearlings from the United States (Willis and Bast 2000). The majority (85/98, 87%) of captures with suitable data in British Columbia have been of males, with 13 females forming about 13% of captures. In some areas, males and females may be sexually segregated in summer (O'Shea and Vaughan 1977; Hermanson and O'Shea 1983; Lewis 1994), which could make field-based estimates of sex ratio unreliable (Hermanson and O'Shea 1983). The capture of reproductive males and females in the same area (e.g., Collard et al. 1990; Rambaldini 2006; Sarell 2007) suggests that this may not be the case in British Columbia. It is unknown whether the apparent male bias in the provincial sex ratio is related to sampling bias or is reflective of a population with few females, which has implications for the reproductive capacity of the population.

Population and distribution trends are not known, but the species may be declining concomitant with a loss of antelope-brush (Purshia tridentata; Lea 2008; Iverson 2012), big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata; B.C. Conservation Data Centre 2016), and open grassland habitats, which have been identified as important foraging habitat in Canada (Chapman et al. 1994; Rambaldini and Brigham 2011). While most Pallid Bat records are known from a First Nation's lands in the Osoyoos area, Pallid Bats have also been captured on conservation (e.g., Sage and Sparrow Conservation Area owned by the Nature Conservancy of Canada). and private lands south of Penticton (B.C. Conservation Data Centre 2015).

Throughout their range, Pallid Bats are generally found in low-elevation (< 1830 m) hot, dry, shrub–steppe or open forest habitats, especially those characterized by rocky outcrops, canyon landscapes, and rugged terrain (Orr 1954; Hermanson and O'Shea 1983). All confirmed provincial records are from the very hot and dry Bunchgrass and Ponderosa Pine biogeoclimatic subzones (BGxh1 and PPxh1) south of Penticton, B.C., generally below an elevation of 800 m (Grindal et al. 1991; Nagorsen and Brigham 1993; Chapman et al. 1994; Willis and Bast 2000; Rambaldini 2006; Sarell 2007). Within these areas, Pallid Bats use a variety of habitats for roosting (day, night, and hibernation) and foraging (Table 1).

^a Function: Is a life-cycle process of the species.

^b Feature: Features are the essential structural components of the habitat required by the species.

^c Attribute: The building blocks or measurable characteristics of a feature.

There are limited data on movements of Pallid Bat. The data available indicate that summer roosting and foraging habitat used by the species are usually within a few kilometres of each other. Foraging range may vary by sex and reproductive status (Baker et al. 2008). In British Columbia, Rambaldini and Brigham (2004) tracked seven bats from the same day roost, and found that most foraged within 1 km of their day roost, although one bat travelled almost 18 km from its roost. Rambaldini (2006) similarly reported that seven bats (six males and one female) captured at the same night roost foraged within 1.5 km of their day roosts. Chapman et al. (1994) tracked three bats from two roosts for a total of eight nights (roost 1: one bat tracked for one night; roost 2: one tracked for two nights, another tracked for five nights). For these bats the maximum movement per night between roost and foraging areas, calculated as distance moved along elevational contours and not by using straight-line distance, averaged 1740 m (range 309–4288m; Dyer, pers. comm., 2016). Research outside the province suggests a foraging range of 3–4.5 km (Bell 1982; Lewis 1996; Baker et al. 2008), with some longer-range movements of 6.7–30 km recorded (Davis 1966; Brown et al. 1997; Baker et al. 2008). It is likely that Pallid Bat foraging distances depend on the quality and configuration of surrounding habitat. The mostly shorter-range movements of this species suggests that the spatial arrangement of different required habitat types may be an important determinant of overall habitat suitability, and that the species might be negatively affected by habitat changes that require it to regularly fly further afield to forage.

3.3.1 Roosting habitat

Roosting habitat for Pallid Bat consists of day roosts (including maternity roosts), night roosts, and hibernacula.

Day and night roosts are occupied from early spring to late fall (i.e., April to October, inclusive). Males and females may share roosts until parturition, at which point mature males leave the maternity roost to roost elsewhere (review in Gervais 2016). Parturition (the process of giving birth) is believed to occur in a maternity roost (a type of day roost) in July (Nagorsen and Brigham 1993). Yearling Pallid Bats do breed, at least in their more southern range, but produce only one young, whereas older females produce twins (Grinnell 1918; Hall 1946; Orr 1954; Hermanson and O'Shea 1983; Sidner 1997). In parts of their range outside Canada, hibernacula are occupied throughout winter. Exact dates of occupancy vary across the range and between years, depending on climate. Hibernation dates in British Columbia likely range from late October to late April, similar to other bat species in the province. Elsewhere, Pallid Bats mate in the hibernacula (Orr 1954; Hermanson and O'Shea 1983) or other roosts (e.g., swarming sites; Fenton 1969; Parsons et al. 2003) between October and February.

Summer day roosts

In summer, males and females roost gregariously; adult females and juvenile males and females roost together in maternity groups, and adult males usually roost separately (Vaughn and O'Shea 1976; Lewis 1996). In some areas, male and female ranges do not overlap, which can bias apparent sex ratios (Hermanson and O'Shea 1983; Lewis 1994). The largest known grouping at a day roost in the province is of adult and yearling males, where up to 130 individuals have been recorded (Rambaldini 2006; Sarell 2007; Rambaldini and Brigham 2011). Much of the information on provincial roosting sites is from males, which reflects the skewed sex ratio of captures to date. Males use rock crevices in cliff faces (Chapman et al. 1994; Rambaldini 2006; Sarell 2007) with warm, stable temperatures (daytime mean ranging from 23–30°C; Rambaldini 2005). One adult male was also found roosting under a pile of stones in a sand pit (Racey 1933). Schorr and Siemers (2013) reported that 53 day roosts used by 10 radiotracked males in Colorado used crevices 9-1500 cm long, 3-25 cm wide, and an average of 46 cm deep (the depth could be measured only for 5 roosts). Little information is available about maternity roosts in the province. Rambaldini (2006) tracked one lactating female and reported she used a rock crevice that was occupied by males in previous years. The radio-tracked female and three males all roosted in the same cliff face but in different crevices. Sarell (2007) also reported that a radio-tracked female used a maternity roost in a cliff. Elsewhere, Vaughn and O'Shea (1976) reported that groupings of females and young in Arizona preferred horizontal crevices with chambers at least 30 cm wide, 12 cm high, and 60 cm deep. Miller and Jensen (2013) reported that crevices used by males and females in Kansas and Oklahoma were 3-20 cm wide. In Oregon, Lewis (1996) reported that females and young roosted in crevices when ambient temperature was warmer than average, and slabs when ambient temperature was cooler than average. Other daytime roosts reported for female Pallid Bats include cavities in large ponderosa pine live trees and snags (Arizona: Rabe et al. 1998; California: Baker et al. 2008), buildings (Orr 1954; Baker et al. 2008), rock crevices (Vaughan and O'Shea 1976), crevices in mines (Arizona: Sidner 197), and bridges (Arizona: Sidner 1997).

Pallid Bats show high fidelity to roosting areas but data indicate they frequently switch among several regularly used roost sites. Rambaldini and Brigham (2008) reported that males switched day roosts in British Columbia an average of every 4 days (range: 1–13 days). Females also switch roosts in the province: Rambaldini (2006) reported that a radio-tracked, lactating female switched roosts at least three times between 10 August and 4 September. Elsewhere, Lewis (1996) reported that females in Oregon switched roosts every 1.4 days on average, and that the rate of roost switching was similar among pregnant and lactating bats. However, Sidner (1997) reported that female Pallid bats studied in Arizona showed strong site fidelity to their roosts and did not move frequently between roosts. Some roosts, such as those habitually used by large aggregations (i.e., 20-100+ individuals), are occupied in consecutive years (Rambaldini and Brigham 2004; Rambaldini 2006; Rambaldini and Brigham 2008, Rambaldini and Brigham 2011).

Although Pallid Bat exhibits adaptations to a desert environment, such as the ability to concentrate urine and the ability to withstand dehydration (review in Hermanson and O'Shea 1983), proximity of the roost to a source of fresh drinking water may be important (Orr 1954; Hermanson and O'Shea 1983). In California, roosts were typically less than 600 m from water (Baker et al. 2008); in Colorado roosts were less than 820 m from the nearest water (Schorr and Siemers 2013); and in Kansas and Oklahoma, most were within 50 m of a water source (Miller and Jensen 2013). Additional research on the importance of drinking water to Pallid Bat is required.

Summer night roosts

Night roosts are typically close to day roost sites and foraging areas (Rambaldini 2006; Sarell 2007). Night roosts are used by bats to rest and consume prey. Lewis (1994) proposed that night roosts used by Pallid Bats may also serve a social function, based on her observations of bats flying directly to a night roost from a day roost, the arrival of bats at the night roost without prey, and the arrival of bats in groups. Rambaldini (2006) reported that, at a cave night roost in British Columbia, males, females, and juveniles roosted together. Pallid Bats show fidelity to specific night roosts within and between years (Lewis 1994; Rambaldini 2006; Sarell 2007).

In British Columbia, night roost structures may include day roost locations, as well as other rock crevices, small caves, trees (e.g., ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, deciduous trees in riparian areas, and fruit trees in orchards), bridges (Chapman et al. 1994; Rambaldini and Brigham 2004; Rambaldini 2006), and carports and decks (Sarell, pers. comm., 2015). Elsewhere, Pallid Bats also use buildings (Lewis 1994).

Hibernacula

To date, no hibernacula for Pallid Bat have been located in Canada, but recent recordings of Pallid Bat echolocation calls in early December 2015 at one location (confirmed by C. Corben and C. Lausen; T. Luszcz, pers. comm., 2016) indicate that individuals are present in winter; therefore, local hibernation is highly probable. At more southerly latitudes, Pallid Bats hibernate within deep narrow crevices inside caverns, caves, abandoned mines, and buildings where relative humidity remains high and temperature does not drop below freezing throughout the winter (Hall 1946; review in Orr 1954; Twente 1955a, 1955b; Johnston 2004).

3.3.2 Foraging habitat

Pallid Bats in Canada forage over open native habitat (i.e., grassland, shrub–steppe, and ponderosa pine habitats), modified habitats (e.g., ranch pastures, vineyards, and fruit orchards; and gravel roads), and talus slopes (Chapman et al. 1994; Rambaldini and Brigham 2011).

Rambaldini and Brigham (2011) reported that Pallid Bat foraging activity in the province was significantly higher over native shrub–steppe habitat, which was dominated by antelope-brush, big sagebrush, gray rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa var. nauseosa), open ponderosa pine, and bunchgrasses, than over vineyards. The authors suggested the use of vineyards was primarily opportunistic (i.e., foraging while flying over the habitat enroute to other foraging habitats), and that the large areas of open ground in vineyards may provide a suitable location to land and catch prey (Rambaldini and Brigham 2011). Although the vineyard habitat provided suitable areas of open habitat, Rambaldini and Brigham (2011) found that prey quality was significantly lower in vineyards than in native habitat. The insect population was less diverse and individual insects in vineyards tended to be smaller than in native habitat. In addition, Jerusalem crickets (Stenopelmatus fuscus), which are an important food source for Pallid Bats (Ross 1961; Ball 1998 cited in Rambaldini and Brigham 2011; Johnston and Fenton 2001), were found only in the native habitat (Rambaldini and Brigham 2011).

Pallid Bats feed on a variety of large arthropods (Ross 1961; O'Shea and Vaughan 1977; Hermanson and O'Shea 1983; Johnston and Fenton 2001), occasionally taking small vertebrates (O'Shea and Vaughan 1977; Bell 1982). The most common foraging strategy for Pallid Bat involves listening for prey (usually terrestrial) rather than using echolocation, and then gleaning larger prey items from the ground (Bell 1982; Johnston and Fenton 2001) and consuming them later, either in flight or at a night roost (O'Shea and Vaughan 1977; Bell 1982; Fuzessery et al. 1993). As a result of this foraging strategy, Pallid Bats often forage in open areas where it is easier to land and to hear prey (Huey 1936; Bell 1982; Chapman et al. 1994; Ball 2002). Pallid Bats will also catch smaller prey items on the wing (Johnston and Fenton 2001), and will glean insects from vegetation (O'Shea and Vaughan 1977; Gervais 2016). Based on an analysis of fecal pellets from bats in the province, Grindal et al. (1991) reported that beetles were the most common prey item for Pallid Bat (present in 70% of the 29 pellets examined), followed by moths (28%) and neuropterans (7%). Rambaldini and Brigham (2011), in a study of 93 fecal pellets from bats in British Columbia, reported that approximately 70% of the prey taken by Pallid Bats in the Okanagan was scarab beetles; Jerusalem crickets were the second-most consumed prey item (12%). Rambaldini and Brigham (2011) also reported that Jerusalem crickets were the dominant food item (35.5% of prey eaten) present in 39 fecal pellets from Pallid Bats in Washington State.

The Pallid Bat's ecological role is not well known. It provides ecosystem services as a predator of large arthropods, including several that are considered crop pests. The value of these types of services can be significant (Kunz et al. 2011). In Canada, diet studies indicate that Pallid Bats eat ten-lined June beetle (Polyphylla decemlineata), California root borer (Prionus californicus), scarab beetles (Phyllophaga spp.) and other Coleoptera; moths (Lepidoptera); crickets (Orthoptera), including Jerusalem cricket; and Neuropterans (Grindal et al. 1991; Rambaldini and Brigham 2011). A study of the Big Brown Bat, which also eats a diet comprised largely of beetles such as cucumber beetles, beetles, leafhoppers, and stinkbugs, predicted that a colony of 150 bats would consume approximately 1.28 million of these insects annually and prevent the production of 33 million cucumber beetle larvae, which is a crop pest (Whitaker 1995). The Pallid Bat's foraging strategy, which includes landing on the ground to capture prey, can make it vulnerable to capture by owls, snakes, and domestic cats (review in Hermanson and O'Shea 1983). Because of the Pallid Bat's small population size and limited distribution in Canada, its impact on food webs is likely localized.

Limiting factors are generally not human-induced and include characteristics that make the species less likely to respond to recovery/conservation efforts (e.g., small population size, few females known to occur in the population, and limited availability of habitat).

Pallid Bat in British Columbia is at the extreme northern extent of its global distribution, is dependent on a habitat type rare north of the 49th parallel, and has a preference for dry, hot climates. Suitable habitat for Pallid Bat is thus naturally limiting for this species in Canada, and recent loss of foraging habitat related to agricultural and urban conversion has exacerbated this problem. The small population size (estimated at < 1000 individuals) and apparently low numbers of females in the province will limit population growth and persistence. The full suite of biologically limiting factors for Pallid Bat in the province is not well known.

Threats are defined as the proximate activities or processes that have caused, are causing, or may cause in the future the destruction, degradation, and/or impairment of the entity being assessed (population, species, community, or ecosystem) in the area of interest (global, national, or subnational) (adapted from Salafsky et al. 2008). For purposes of threat assessment, only present and future threats are considered.^Footnote8 Threats presented here do not include limiting factors,^Footnote9 which are presented in Section 3.5.

The threat classification below is based on the IUCN–CMP (World Conservation Union–Conservation Measures Partnership) unified threats classification system and is consistent with methods used by the B.C. Conservation Data Centre. For a detailed description of the threat classification system, see the Open Standards website (Open Standards 2014). Threats may be observed, inferred, or projected to occur in the near term. Threats are characterized here in terms of scope, severity, and timing. Threat "impact" is calculated from scope and severity. For information on how the values are assigned, see Master et al. (2012) and table footnotes for details. Threats for the Pallid Bat were assessed for the entire province, and were based on a three-generation time frame of 15 years (Table 2).

^d Threat numbers are provided for Level 1 threats (i.e., whole numbers) and Level 2 threats (i.e., numbers with decimals).

^e Impact – The degree to which a species is observed, inferred, or suspected to be directly or indirectly threatened in the area of interest. The impact of each threat is based on severity and scope rating and considers only present and future threats. Threat impact reflects a reduction of a species population. The median rate of population reduction for each combination of scope and severity corresponds to the following classes of threat impact: Very High (75%), High (40%), Medium (15%), and Low (3%). Unknown: used when impact cannot be determined (e.g., if values for either scope or severity are unknown); Not Calculated: impact not calculated as threat is outside the assessment time (e.g., timing is insignificant/negligible [past threat] or low [possible threat in long term]); Negligible: when scope or severity is negligible; Not a Threat: when severity is scored as neutral or potential benefit.

^f Scope – Proportion of the species that can reasonably be expected to be affected by the threat within 10 years. The Scope for this species was extended to a three-generation time frame to include longer-term threats that need to be addressed within this recovery planning window. Usually measured as a proportion of the species' population in the area of interest. (Pervasive = 71–100%; Large = 31–70%; Restricted = 11–30%; Small = 1–10%; Negligible < 1%).

^g Severity – Within the scope, the level of damage to the species from the threat that can reasonably be expected to be affected by the threat within a 10-year or three-generation time frame. For this species, a generation time of 5 years was used, resulting in severity being scored over a 15 year time frame. Usually measured as the degree of reduction of the species' population. (Extreme = 71–100%; Serious = 31–70%; Moderate = 11–30%; Slight = 1–10%; Negligible < 1%; Neutral or Potential Benefit ≥ 0%).

^h Timing – High = continuing; Moderate = only in the future (could happen in the short term [< 10 years or three generations]) or now suspended (could come back in the short term); Low = only in the future (could happen in the long term) or now suspended (could come back in the long term); Insignificant/Negligible = only in the past and unlikely to return, or no direct effect but limiting.

The overall province-wide Threat Impact for this species is Very High.^Footnote10 This ranking considers the cumulative impacts of multiple threats led by disease, development resulting in habitat loss and habitat fragmentation, and human disturbance. The most serious threat to Pallid Bat is white-nose syndrome (Threat #8.1). Although this disease has not yet been discovered in British Columbia, its discovery in Washington State in March 2016 indicates that, if it is not yet in the province, it will likely be detected within the period included in this Threat Assessment.^Footnote11 Other important threats are related to habitat loss or degradation from development, including road-related construction and road-widening activities (Threats #1.1, #2.1, and #4.1). Details are discussed below under the Threat Level 1 headings.

Because suitable habitat limits the potential expansion of Pallid Bat populations, fragmentation of existing habitat is a persistent threat. Behavioural studies indicate that Pallid Bats select sites where the distance between roosting and foraging habitat is ~ < 4.5 km. Fragmentation of native grasslands (preferred foraging habitat) increases this distance and reduces habitat suitability, particularly for females with dependent young.

Pallid Bats are reported to be sensitive to human disturbance (O'Shea and Vaughan 1977; Chapman et al. 1994), and will change or abandon roost sites even with indirect disturbance (e.g., movement within a few metres of a night roost; Chapman et al. 1994). Given the increasing human population in their only known Canadian range (see "1.1 Housing & urban areas" below), disturbance rates are likely increasing and may threaten the viability of otherwise suitable Pallid Bat habitat.

Little information is available on generation time of Pallid Bats (Hermanson and O'Shea 1983). Yearling Pallid Bats do breed, at least in their more southern range, but produce only one young, whereas older females may produce twins (Hermanson and O'Shea 1983, Sidner 1997). Data on longevity of Pallid Bat in the wild are limited; Cockrum (1973) reported that the minimum age of a banded Pallid Bat was 9 years. Sidner (1997) reported a male Pallid Bat that was 10 years old and a female that was at least 11 years old. Pallid Bats in captivity are known to live 8 years (Orr 1958) and 9 years (Brown et al. 1978), with a maximum longevity record in captivity of 14.8 years (Weigl 2005). For Myotis lucifugus and M. septentrionalis, which are insectivorous, hibernating bats (which likely is associated with longer lifespans; Wilkinson and South 2002), and for which more information is available about lifespan and population demography, COSEWIC (2013) estimated generation time as 5–10 years. Based on the available information, a generation time of 5 years was used for Pallid Bat, which resulted in the scoring of this Threat Assessment over a 15-year time frame.

Threat 1. Residential & commercial development

1.1 Housing & urban areas

Foraging and roosting habitat quality may be degraded or permanently destroyed by residential development in native shrub–steppe habitat. Urban development is an important cause of reduction of foraging habitat for Pallid Bat. Over 67% of the antelope-brush/needle-and-thread grass ecosystem, an important foraging habitat for Pallid Bat (Rambaldini and Brigham 2011), has been lost since 1800, and the ecosystem is projected to continue this decline until the community is extirpated in all but protected sites (Iverson 2012). Seventeen percent of the remaining antelope-brush/needle-and-thread grass ecosystem was protected as of 2012 (Iverson 2012). None of the remaining habitat was considered to have "excellent" ecological integrity, although 54% of the remaining habitat was considered to have "good" ecological integrity (Iverson 2012). The big sagebrush shrub–steppe ecosystem has also declined significantly, with 33% of the ecosystem lost since 1800 (Lea 2008). This ecosystem is also projected to continue its decline (B.C. Conservation Data Centre 2016). Native grassland habitat is the best-quality foraging habitat for Pallid Bats (Rambaldini and Brigham 2011), and its conversion will fragment remaining habitat, having a negative effect on individuals because they will need to spend more time foraging or travel further to access suitable foraging habitat.

Although the cliff habitat used by Pallid Bats for roosting is unlikely to be directly affected by urban development, talus roosting habitat and night roosts in trees could be removed during development. In addition, the apparent sensitivity of Pallid Bats to disturbance (Orr 1954; Beck and Rudd 1960; Chapman et al. 1994; O'Shea and Vaughan 1999) could cause them to move or abandon their roost because of nearby activity.

The threat of converting native habitat into residential housing is ongoing, although currently it likely occurs at lower levels than in the past. Therefore, the severity will be Serious where it occurs, but the proportion of the population affected by development in future will be small.

1.2 Commercial & industrial areas

Similar to the threat posed by "Housing & urban areas," increasing human population within the Pallid Bat's range will likely result in continued commercial development. The severity will be Extreme to Serious for the local population where commercial development occurs, as it will degrade or remove foraging or roosting habitat, and involve associated disturbance; however, the proportion of the population that will be affected is anticipated to be Negligible.

1.3 Tourism & recreation areas

Similar to the threat posed by "Housing & urban areas," tourism and recreation development of Pallid Bat habitats will disturb bats at roost sites, and/or degrade or destroy both foraging and roosting habitat (depending on the type of development). Developments such as golf courses or activities such as off-road vehicle use in native shrub–steppe habitat will degrade or destroy foraging habitat; developments such as rock-climbing recreational areas could disturb bats and alter the suitability of a Pallid Bat roosting area. Where recreation and tourism development alters roosting or foraging habitat, the effect would be serious; however, the proportion of the population that will be affected is anticipated to be Negligible. As tourism and recreation increases in the south Okanagan, the impact of this threat may increase.

Threat 2. Agriculture & aquaculture

2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops

Historically, the greatest threat to the Pallid Bat was the conversion of native habitat to agricultural crops, primarily orchards and vineyards. The most important foraging habitat for Pallid Bat has declined significantly (see Threat 1.1 for information), and the remaining habitat is projected to continue to decline in abundance and suitability (Iverson 2012; B.C. Conservation Data Centre 2016). Pallid Bats forage in open areas where they can hear prey and land on the ground to capture them (Bell 1982). Although Pallid Bats forage over agricultural areas such as vineyards where cleared areas occur, the diversity, suitability, and abundance of prey is reduced compared to native habitat (Rambaldini and Brigham 2011). Conversion of native grasslands to areas with more homogeneous and dense vegetation, such as through development of fruit-growing operations, will fragment the remaining grassland habitat and reduce the availability of the highest-quality foraging habitat for the species. Although the rate of conversion may remain stable (Iverson 2012), the overall impact is increasing because of the decreasing availability of the highest-quality habitat. Continued fragmentation of the habitat will negatively affect the species by requiring that they increase their foraging effort to maintain their prey intake.

2.3 Livestock farming & ranching

Grazing is considered Pervasive in the antelope-brush/needle-and-thread grass ecosystem (Iverson 2012) and the big sagebrush ecosystem (B.C. Conservation Data Centre 2016), which is the preferred foraging habitat of Pallid Bat. Grazing affects the soil and plant communities (Jones 2000), which are related to invertebrate abundance and diversity (Selinger 2010; Bassett and Fraser 2015). Studies have not determined whether grazing affects the preferred prey species of Pallid Bat; therefore, the specific effect of grazing on Pallid Bat prey is Unknown and requires research. If grazing negatively affects the prey of Pallid Bat, grazing could further fragment the habitat for the species, requiring bats to travel further to forage. Associated effects of converting native habitat to agriculture, including removal of trees, could negatively affect the availability of night roost trees where large ponderosa pine snags or trees are removed.

Threat 3. Energy production & mining

3.2 Mining and quarrying

Mining and quarrying activities have the potential to disturb bats or degrade bat habitat in mines, cliff/talus crevices, or rock crevices/talus, all of which may be used by Pallid Bats (e.g., Hall 1946; Twente 1955a, 1955b; Hermanson and O'Shea 1983; Johnston 2004; Godwin-Shepard 2008, cited in Sarell et al. 2012; Willis and Bast 2008). Several historic non-operating mines occur within the Pallid Bat's range and mining activity and geologic exploration is still occurring in the area (Sookochoff 2015; B.C. Ministry of Energy and Mines 2016); therefore, activities in and around mines remain a threat to Pallid Bat habitat. Reopening or permanent closure of old mines could cause direct mortality of any bats present, change the microclimate characteristics or internal structure of the site, or prevent bats from entering, which would render the site ineffective as a Pallid Bat hibernaculum. Bat-sensitive mine closures, including bat-friendly gating, can maintain important habitat attributes for bats.

Quarrying of talus or other rock may also affect Pallid Bats and their habitat. Although the number of quarries within the range of the species may be small, where quarrying of talus or other rock associated with roosts or hibernacula occurs, it may cause direct destruction of important habitat attributes and kill bats if activity occurs when the roost is occupied. Pallid Bats may also be disturbed by noise and activity around their roost from exploration and mining activities, which could cause bats to move or abandon their roost (Orr 1954; Beck and Rudd 1960; Chapman et al. 1994; O'Shea and Vaughan 1999; Rambaldini and Brigham 2004).

Overall, the limited data on bat use of mines and habitats subject to these activities makes the scope of the threat Restricted–Small. Where these activities occur, the potential severity can be Serious–Moderate resulting in an overall impact on the population of Medium–Low. The largest effect will occur if an important habitat feature (e.g., hibernaculum) is destroyed, or if the activity occurs when the feature is occupied by bats. In other cases (e.g., activity in an area outside of the season of use with no damage to the feature; efforts taken to mitigate effects), the impact may be Low.

Threat 4. Transportation & service corridors

4.1 Roads & railroads

Pallid Bats forage low over the ground in open areas, and use tertiary roads as foraging corridors (Collard et al. 1990; Chapman et al. 1994), which may put them at greater risk of collision with motor vehicles than other bat species. The number of Pallid Bats killed by motor vehicles is unknown but is probably small because of the likely infrequent presence of vehicles on tertiary roads during periods when bats are active.

Development is a threat to Pallid Bat roosting and foraging habitat throughout its range. Urban and commercial development may be associated with road construction or enhancement of transportation corridors. Blasting or removal of cliff and/or rock areas during infrastructure work may remove roosts, causing loss of habitat. If the roost is occupied, these activities will cause direct mortality of individuals, and/or could cause abandonment of nearby roosts owing to disturbance (Orr 1954; Beck and Rudd 1960; Chapman et al. 1994; O'Shea and Vaughan 1999; Rambaldini and Brigham 2004). In addition, development or expansion of corridors in native grassland habitat will degrade or destroy important foraging habitat for the species. Bridges built within the range of Pallid Bat may provide suitable night-roosting habitat for the species.

Within the Pallid Bat's range, two proposed roadway developments may affect status and recovery. Highway 97 near Vaseux Lake, which is close to one of the known Pallid Bat roost sites, is slated to be widened within the next 15 years, but the project has not yet been defined (Persello, pers. comm., 2015). Plans for protection of habitat in the Vaseux Lake area may limit future highway development, reducing the overall effect on Pallid Bat habitat (J. Tillie, pers. comm., 2016). White Lake Road, which is identified as a potential highways improvement corridor (B.C. Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2003) goes through important habitat for Pallid Bat, including White Lake Grasslands Protected Area.

Threat 6. Human intrusions & disturbance

6.1 Recreational activities

Tourism and recreation activities, such as rock-climbing and bouldering, have the potential to disturb Pallid Bats roosting in cliff crevices and talus. Pallid Bats appear sensitive to disturbance and may abandon or move roosts when disturbed (Beck and Rudd 1960; Davis 1969; Chapman et al. 1994; O'Shea and Vaughan 1999). Disturbance of Pallid Bats by rock climbers has not been documented; however, based on the bat's sensitivity to disturbance, it is a likely effect where climbing occurs in Pallid Bat habitat. Recreational climbing activity is most likely to occur from spring to fall; therefore, bats in summer day roosts in cliff or rock habitat are most likely to be disturbed by this recreational activity. The extent to which rock-climbing can destroy or change rock crevice roosts (e.g., changing opening structure, or causing slabs to break off) is unknown but is another possible effect of rock-climbing. Additional research to identify roost areas and determine overlap with climbing areas is required to better understand the scope of this threat. The Skaha Lake area has potential for significant overlap. The Skaha Bluffs area has been identified as providing high-quality summer daytime roost habitat for Pallid Bat (Robertson 1988; Sarell 2012), and is a popular rock-climbing area in the province (B.C. Parks 2015). Pallid Bat is suspected to occur in the Skaha Bluffs area but has not been confirmed to do so. Other climbing areas are being developed along the east side of Skaha Lake and in the vicinity of Okanagan Falls (T. Luszcz, pers. comm., 2016). Where these developments occur within the range of Pallid Bat they have the potential to affect Pallid Bat habitat. Because of the widespread level of human activity within the bat's range, disturbance at roost sites could be an important and growing threat.

Other types of recreational activities, such as the use of all-terrain vehicles, when it degrades or destroys native grassland, will reduce or remove foraging habitat for Pallid Bat. In some areas, all-terrain vehicles have severely damaged the native antelope-brush/needle-and-thread grass habitat (Iverson 2012). As high-quality native grassland becomes more restricted, even small incremental losses may have high localized impacts.

Recreational activity that disturbs bats has been assessed as having a Low impact based on its Small scope. Nevertheless, as overlap increases between recreation areas and Pallid Bat roosts (e.g., new recreation areas established in Pallid Bat roosting habitat, or additional roosts discovered in recreation areas) or foraging habitat (use of novel off-road areas), the threat impact may also increase.

6.3 Work & other activities

Research activity such as visiting roost sites and capture and tagging/tracking of individual bats has the potential to disturb bats and may affect survival rates (Barclay and Bell 1988; Sidner 1997). Researcher activity near roosts has been noted to disturb Pallid Bats (e.g., Chapman et al. 1994). Marking Pallid Bats with bands has the potential to affect the survivorship of bats and cause trauma to the banded area (Sidner 1997; Ellison 2008). Researchers entering winter roosts may disturb bats and affect survival rates (Speakman et al. 1991), and/or may spread the spores that cause white-nose syndrome unless appropriate decontamination protocols are followed. Researchers should be aware of their potential effects on bats, take steps to minimize impacts, and record instances of potential disturbance and their effect. Additional research is required to better understand the effects of human activity on Pallid Bat. All activities that involve research and capture of wildlife are subject to the restrictions in the BC Wildlife Act. Researchers who want to capture bats will need a Wildlife Act scientific research permit. These permits will not be issued if population level impacts greater than 1% are expected. Also, all researcher need to comply with the hygiene protocols while working in and around bat roosts or capturing bats. Due to these restrictions, this threat is scored as negligible.

Threat 7. Natural system modifications

7.1 Fire & fire suppression

The overall impact of fire suppression on Pallid Bat is Unknown. The antelope-brush and sagebrush habitats used by Pallid Bat for foraging are not fire-dependent, and fire effects in these habitats are both negative (loss of antelope-brush) and positive (removal of a competing alien invasive grass; Krannitz and Mottishaw 2003; Iverson 2012). Fire suppression has resulted in increased tree density in south Okanagan shrub–steppe habitats (Turner and Krannitz 2001; Gayton 2003). This results in less open habitat and may alter habitat use and behaviour of Pallid Bats, which forage primarily in open areas (Chapman et al. 1994; Rambaldini and Brigham 2011). Fire in ponderosa pine habitat may destroy large trees used for night roosting (Chapman et al. 1994). The potential rate of encroachment and changes in the rate due to climate change (e.g., Gayton 2013), and the overall effect of fire and fire suppression on Pallid Bat habitat requires additional research.

Threat 8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases

8.1 Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases

The overall threat impact for Threat 8 is based on the significant threat of white-nose syndrome. All other threats are cumulative to this threat.

Invasion of weeds into disturbed grassland habitat changes the plant composition and distribution of plants (Fleischner 1994), which might affect the ability of Pallid Bat to find prey, as well as the prey community that lives there. The spread of invasive species is identified as a significant threat to antelope-brush/needle-and-thread grass habitat (Iverson 2012), which is important foraging habitat for Pallid Bat (Rambaldini and Brigham 2011). The impact of this threat is currently Unknown.

Pallid Bats, which frequently forage on or near the ground, are vulnerable to predation by domestic cats (Robertson 1998 cited in Willis and Bast 2000). The number of Pallid Bats killed by cats is likely small; however, as urban development continues within Pallid Bat habitat, the impact of this source of mortality may increase. The impact of this threat is assessed as Low–Negligible.

Within this Threat Assessment period (2016–2031), white-nose syndrome is the most significant threat to Pallid Bat populations, with a projected Very High impact, based on a Pervasive scope, and Extreme severity. The timing is rated Moderate because this disease is not yet known to occur in the province but is expected to be discovered within 10 years. Since 2006, hibernating bats in eastern North America have been dying in high numbers (Blehert et al. 2009) from a cold-loving fungus, Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Minnis and Lindner 2013). The fungus is revealed by white fungal growth on the muzzles, ears, and/or wings of bats as hyphae invade these tissues (Blehert et al. 2009). White-nose syndrome is thought to disrupt important physiological functions and cause waking periods during hibernation, resulting in premature depletion of fat stores and in starvation of affected bats (Cryan et al. 2010).

White-nose syndrome was discovered in Canada in the winter of 2009–2010 and as of June 2016, its occurrence was confirmed in Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. In the United States, this disease is confirmed in 29 states (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2016). In three additional states, the fungus has been detected on hibernating bats, but the disease is not yet present (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2016). The May 2016 discoveries in Washington State of a Little Brown Myotis (Myotis lucifugus) with the disease and a Silver-haired Bat that tested positive for the fungus that causes the disease, has accelerated the expected date of detection in British Columbia. To date, white-nose syndrome is estimated to have killed 5.7–6.7 million bats since its arrival in North America (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2016). Since its emergence, estimates suggest that affected bat populations in the northeastern United States have declined by 80% (Turner et al. 2011). As this disease spreads to new areas, it is assumed that each species of cave-hibernating bats in these areas will be at risk (Cryan et al. 2010). The susceptibility of Pallid Bat to white-nose syndrome is unknown because, until recently, the disease has not occurred within the Pallid Bat's range. Susceptibility to the disease may vary by bat species (e.g., Cryan et al. 2013) and by geography. In areas with shorter winters, or in areas where bats are able to forage mid-winter and replenish their fat stores, bats may not be as susceptible to white-nose Syndrome (Cryan et al. 2013). In British Columbia, Pallid Bat activity has been recorded mid-winter (C. Lausen, pers. comm., 2016), and winter groupings appear smaller than in the east, which means that fewer bats are exposed to the spores within a particular hibernaculum. Because of these factors, white-nose syndrome may spread more slowly in the province than in the east. If it is not susceptible to the disease, the Pallid Bat could still serve as a vector for spread of fungal spores when it shares hibernation sites with other species of bats.

In British Columbia, very few hibernacula have been found for any bat species, and none are known for Pallid Bat, so it will be difficult to observe and measure the arrival, distribution, and effects of white-nose syndrome.

Threat 9. Pollution

9.3 Agricultural & forestry effluents

Pesticide use in agriculture may affect Pallid Bats directly and indirectly; however, the overall impact is Unknown. Much of the Pallid Bat range in Canada is dominated by agricultural land use, managers of which often employ pesticides and other chemicals (Verrin et al. 2004) to facilitate crop production. The direct effect of pesticides on Pallid Bat is unclear as no records exist of Pallid Bat poisoning from pesticides. Bat mortality related to organochlorine insecticide exposure was documented in Gray Bats in the United States (Clark et al. 1978) and the chemical is still present in bat tissues years after their use ceased (review by O'Shea and Clark 2002). Currently-used insecticides such as pyrethroids and organophosphates have been detected in bat tissues and guano, but the effect of these chemicals on bats is not known (Eidels et al. 2007; review in Bayat et al. 2014). Although exposure to pesticides is less than in the past, current exposure levels may be sufficient to generate sub-lethal effects (Bayat et al. 2014). The level of exposure required to generate sub-lethal effects is not understood and requires additional research. Herbicides may benefit Pallid Bats by reducing vegetation and creating more open areas, or negatively affect them by reducing vegetation important to their insect prey (Gervais 2016). Use of insecticides in Pallid Bat foraging habitat will reduce insects (review in Williams-Guillén et al. 2015) and may negatively affect prey species of Pallid Bat. Research to clarify the impact of pesticides on Pallid Bats is required.

The recovery (population and distribution) goal is to maintain current Pallid Bat populations within their Canadian range.

The current known range and population estimate of the Pallid Bat in Canada is based on approximately 125 records. Although the known range is quite restricted, the actual range may be larger because suitable habitat exists in Canada outside of the South Okanagan Valley. Therefore, it is possible that the species may currently occupy, or have occupied in the past, a larger range than known at present. The recovery goal focuses on ensuring that Pallid Bat populations are maintained. Actions identified to meet the goal recognize that data on the population size and species range are incomplete. Species recovery will require additional research to document the extent of the species' known range and habitat associations. Actions are also identified to determine trends in Pallid Bat roosting and foraging habitat within its range, and to address gaps in knowledge about Pallid Bat ecology and threats to the species, which will contribute to the goal of maintaining extant populations.

The Pallid Bat is difficult to detect using standard bat inventory techniques, and there is no means for direct measurement of population size. COSEWIC (2010) assessed the species as Threatened owing to its small estimated population size; that is, likely more than 250 mature individuals (the quantitative threshold between assessment as Threatened vs. Endangered) but fewer than 1000 (the quantitative threshold between assessment as Threatened vs. Special Concern). The lower bound in population size was based on Rambaldini (2006), who estimated that "at least" 250 Pallid Bats reside in the Okanagan Valley during summer months, based on roost surveys where one roost used by males had up to 130 individuals, and several additional roosts with fewer bats were discovered. Nevertheless, she indicated this is likely a "gross underestimate" of the total population as several additional sites known to be occupied by the species were not included in the surveys.

A specific population target (i.e., number of mature individuals) is not specified in the recovery goal because of the uncertainty surrounding the number of mature Pallid Bats in Canada, and the difficulty associated with directly monitoring population size. Instead, it is recommended that current numbers (comprising at least 250, and possibly up to 1000 individuals) are maintained. Until such time as population size can be accurately and directly measured, the recovery goal will be measured through ongoing vital rate monitoring, thus ensuring Pallid Bat occupancy of known roost sites, and through monitoring abundance of suitable foraging habitat. Recovery actions must include surveys to determine species distribution, roost locations, and hibernacula. If the species is ultimately detected outside of its current known range the population and associated habitat should also be considered important for the species' survival and recovery, and maintained.

The recovery objectives for the Pallid Bat are to:

1. Protect^Footnote12, manage, and monitor Pallid Bat habitats, including maternity roosts, day roosts, hibernacula, night roosts, and foraging habitat to ensure that suitable characteristics of the habitat remain available to the species;
2. Determine Pallid Bat population trends and vital rates (e.g., survival rates, reproductive rates);
3. Identify the full range extent of the Pallid Bat in British Columbia, with a focus on identifying the location of maternity roosts and hibernacula;
4. Conduct research into the impact of threats to roosts and foraging habitat (e.g., habitat conversion and development, grazing, fire and fire suppression), threats to bats (e.g., white-nose syndrome, recreational activities, human disturbance, and pesticide use) and effectiveness of recovery actions; and
5. Improve our understanding of key factors contributing to Pallid Bat decline, and possible constraints to recovery.

The following actions have been categorized under the action groups of the B.C. Conservation Framework (B.C. Ministry of Environment 2009). Status of the action group for this species is given in parentheses.

Compile Status Report (complete)

• COSEWIC report completed (Willis and Bast 2000; COSEWIC 2010).

List under Wildlife Act (complete)

• It is an offence to kill or capture the species under the provincial Wildlife Act.

Send to COSEWIC (complete)

• Pallid Bat assessed as Threatened (Willis and Bast 2000; COSEWIC 2010).

Planning (completed)

• Provincial Recovery Strategy completed (Pallid Bat Recovery Team 2008). Updated Recovery Plan completed (this document, 2016).

Habitat Protection (in progress)

• Table 3 includes examples of protected habitat in the south Okanagan at the time of writing. Protected areas are regularly changing with the addition of new properties; therefore, this list is not complete. Although none of the identified areas were specifically established to protect Pallid Bat habitat, the species will benefit from protection of natural ecological systems, including native grassland and cliffs. Pallid Bat has not been confirmed to use all of the areas identified.

ⁱ This is the size of the property; not all of the area will necessarily be suitable for roosting and/or foraging.

^j Threat numbers according to the IUCN–CMP classification (see Table 2 for details).

Habitat Restoration (in progress)

• Stewardship groups are active in the Okanagan, working to restore natural wetlands and grasslands. Although none of these projects specifically benefit the Pallid Bat, natural habitat restoration in this species' range will likely improve its foraging opportunities. Wetland restoration will provide drinking water for the species. The effect of these activities on the Pallid Bat's use of the ecosystem is unknown.
• Active restoration management actions have been undertaken by the province in the White Lake Grassland Protected Area. The goal is to restore pre-fire vegetation composition and structure and to reduce invasive species (Millar 2007).
• Restoration in the Vaseux Bighorn National Wildlife Area included prescribed burning and control of invasive alien plant species (Environment Canada 2011).
• In the Okanagan, the Nature Trust of British Columbia, in partnership with B.C. Ministry of Environment, has begun grassland restoration projects on two ranches--the White Lake Basin and Okanagan Falls Biodiversity ranches. Biodiversity ranches use grazing as a management tool to maintain and/or restore the natural grassland ecosystem and associated habitats (Warman and Adair 2013).
• Kreitzman et al. (2015) provided an overview of some conservation and restoration work in the south Okanagan-Similkameen.

Private Land Stewardship (in progress)

• No habitat areas are currently managed specifically for Pallid Bat; however, the species will benefit from any activities that maintain or enhance native grassland habitat, or maintain cliff and cave habitat.
• Private lands account for approximately 30% of the Okanagan-Similkameen's land base (Wildlife Habitat Canada 2015).
• Numerous stewardship documents have been developed (e.g. BC Grasslands Stewardship Guide: A Guide for Ranchers and Recreation Users (Chutter 1997). Use of stewardship/best management principles is voluntary.
• Numerous areas have been purchased by conservation organizations and are managed with the goal of maintaining natural ecosystem values (see Table 3).

Species and Population Management (in progress)

• It is an offence to kill or capture the species under the province's Wildlife Act.
• Bat surveys in the south Okanagan, and in other potentially suitable grasslands elsewhere in the province (e.g., Lillooet), have included surveys for Pallid Bat to determine presence, identify roosts, and to confirm hibernation sites (in Vaseux-Bighorn National Wildlife Area). Some of the work completed includes: Robertson (1988); Collard et al. (1990); Chapman et al. (1994); Holroyd et al. (1994); Sarell et al. (1997); Sarell and Haney (2000); Rambaldini (2006); Sarell (2007); Rambaldini and Brigham (2008); Sarell et al. (2011); Rambaldini and Brigham (2011); Sarell (2012); Sarell et al. (2012); Hemmera Envirochem Inc. (2015); C. Lausen, pers. comm. (2015); and T. Luszcz, pers. comm. (2016).
• A habitat capability-suitability model has been created for Pallid Bat and was recently updated (Warman et al. 1998; Haney, pers. comm., 2015). The model includes breeding, summer roosting, and foraging habitat, and provides ratings by biogeoclimatic zone, ecosystem, ecosystem attributes (aspect and slope), and ecosystem condition (range condition and forest successional stage). The model also includes rating adjustments for vegetation stand closure (the presence of dense shrub cover or moderate or dense tree cover lowers a rating), and proximity of the breeding/roosting habitat to foraging habitat, where foraging habitat more than 8 km from roosting/breeding is considered less suitable.
• Ecosystem mapping for the area has been conducted (e.g., Iverson and Haney 2012).
• Protocols have been developed to minimize the spread of the fungus causing white-nose syndrome (B.C. Ministry of Environment and B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations 2015a, b), as well as a national plan to manage this disease in Canada (Canadian Wildlife Heath Cooperative 2015).

^k Conservation Framework designation: HP = habitat protection; HR = habitat restoration; PLS – private land stewardship; SPM = species and population management.

^l Threat numbers according to the IUCN–CMP classification (see Table 2 for details).

^m Essential (urgent and important, needs to start immediately); Necessary (important but not urgent, action can start in 2–5 years); or Beneficial (action is beneficial and could start at any time that was feasible).

Recommended actions have been categorized by the action groups of the B.C. Conservation Framework. Necessary actions to support recovery include habitat protection, habitat restoration, private land stewardship, and species and population management.

6.3.1 Habitat protection, restoration, and private land stewardship

The unique, arid ecosystem in the southern Okanagan is an area of great conservation interest, and is home to many at-risk ecosystems and species. Recovery of Pallid Bat can be promoted through collaboration with conservation groups and others working toward recovery of ecosystems and other species in the area.

Priority habitat areas for protection, restoration, and private land stewardship should include all known maternity roosts/roosting areas, all hibernacula, other roosts used by more than 10 individuals, and foraging habitat within 4.5 km of known roosts. Threat mitigation should be prioritized in habitat within protected areas or areas managed for conservation, areas with the largest colonies (including the roosting habitat and surrounding foraging habitat), and around hibernacula.

Some Pallid Bat are already protected, such as those recorded from conservation areas and areas owned and managed by conservancy organizations. Recovery actions should include the identification of additional areas that are protected or are candidates for habitat protection, and the investigation of different types of habitat protection. For example, the potential to have Pallid Bat designated as Identified Wildlife under the Identified Wildlife Management Strategy (Province of British Columbia 2004), on the basis of possible negative impacts on foraging and roosting habitat from forestry and range activities, should be explored. Habitat protection by the provincial government through wildlife management areas, ecological reserves, protected areas and provincial parks,^Footnote13 and conservation areas owned and managed by conservation organizations, means that connected native habitat in the south Okanagan could be maintained within the known range of the species.

Private land stewardship will be essential to the recovery of the species because many of the known locations of Pallid Bat are on private land. Fundamental protection for a suite of species-at-risk in this area can be achieved through encouraging habitat stewardship by private landowners with a collaborative approach. Proactive contact with landowners/managers can identify opportunities for land stewardship, and identify instances where landowners can be supported, establishing a positive working relationship. Development of best practices documents to address and mitigate threats to the species can provide information to landowners and managers. On private lands, protection of habitat can be achieved through conservation agreements, conservation covenants, and habitat management facilitated by conservation organizations. Landowners/managers can be encouraged to maintain or improve bat habitat by: implementing best management practices around bat habitat (e.g., cave and crevice habitat, mines); implementing best practices to maintain or restore native grassland habitat; and actions to mitigate threats identified for the habitat. For public activities that are threats (e.g., rock-climbing, off-road vehicle use) in specific areas, a targeted education outreach program to specific stakeholders to voluntarily implement best practices is important. Encouraging recreational users to restrict their activities to defined areas instead of establishing new climbing routes or riding their vehicles off-trail, will restrict expansion of human activity and disturbance.

For all habitat protection and restoration activities, as well as landowner outreach, securing funding to support activities (from e.g., the federal Habitat Stewardship Fund) will increase the chance of success.

6.3.2 Species and population management

Species recovery will require additional research to document the extent of the species' known range and habitat associations, and to clarify limiting factors and the impact of threats on the species.

The Pallid Bat is reported to be sensitive to disturbance. Researchers should recognize their potential effect on the species, and should track instances of disturbance. Any research technique or protocol that involves capture of bats, or potential disturbance of bats, must be carefully considered and a rationale provided that shows the benefits of the activity outweigh the potential costs to the species. Best practices should be used and methods implemented to mitigate any potential negative effects (e.g., Barclay and Bell 1988; Canadian Council on Animal Care 2003; Ellison 2008; Amelon et al. 2009; O'Mara et al. 2014).

An initial action to support recovery of the species should be the development of a list of threats for each known occurrence of Pallid Bat (including roosts and foraging habitat), and priorities for threat mitigation. In addition, a research and inventory framework should be developed that identifies a prioritized list of research and inventory activities to address knowledge gaps about the ecology of Pallid Bat (current distribution; location of summer day and night roosts; movement patterns, including seasonal movements and movements between roosting and foraging habitat; use, location, and characteristics of winter habitat; and impact of threats). Through the development of these two documents, recovery actions will be prioritized and tracked.

A priority for recovery actions is to survey for the species both inside and outside its known range. A focus of these surveys should be on identifying additional maternity roosts and discovering hibernacula. Discovery of additional populations will increase the proportion of the population that can be protected, and facilitate the ability to provide a more precise population estimate. Surveys should focus on locations:

• outside the range where acoustic detections or expert opinion suggest the species occurs;
• outside the range where habitat suitability modeling has identified suitable habitat for the species; and
• within the range to further elucidate habitat use of the species, and to monitor known populations and habitats.

The species is difficult to survey; therefore, surveys in areas where the species is not known to occur should employ sufficient effort such that, if the species is not detected, the study provides statistical confidence that the species is not present. To support these surveys, investigating and testing novel, efficient, techniques to assist in capturing or verifying the presence of the species is also recommended. Collecting and compiling data on characteristics of habitat used by Pallid Bat for day roosting, night roosting, and foraging will assist in refining habitat suitability models.

Capture surveys of the species will be essential in determining whether the sex ratio of Pallid Bat in the province is skewed toward males as data collected to date indicate, or whether males and females generally roost separately and the male-biased sex ratio reflects limited sampling. This will affect the understanding of factors limiting the recovery of the species.

An important aspect of tracking recovery of the species is monitoring trends in roost occupancy and use, population size, and foraging habitat. Monitoring trends will provide information on whether recovery actions to maintain the species is adequate, and will provide updated information to prioritize conservation actions for specific areas.

The most significant threat to Pallid Bat is suspected to be white-nose syndrome (Threat 8.1), based on the assumption that the species is susceptible to the disease. Monitoring this disease in Pallid Bat should be included as part of a province-wide monitoring program designed to detect its presence in British Columbia, and to determine its impact on provincial bat species. All other threats to Pallid Bat are cumulative to the potentially devastating effect of white-nose syndrome, if the species is shown to be susceptible to the disease.

The impact of some threats to Pallid Bat are unknown (e.g., Threats 2.3, 7.1, and 9.3). Research to identify the impacts of these threats, and how they can be mitigated, is an important action to promote the long-term persistence of the species.

Survival/recovery habitat is defined as the habitat that is necessary for the survival or recovery of the species. This is the area in which the species naturally occurs or depends on, directly or indirectly, to carry out its life-cycle processes, or where the species formerly occurred and has the potential to reoccupy.

A description of the known biophysical features and attributes of the species' habitat that are required to support its life-cycle functions are provided in Section 3.3. Work required to identify additional habitat requirements and species distribution are included in the Recovery Action Table (Table 5) in Section 6.2.

The area of survival/recovery habitat required for a species is guided by the amount of habitat needed to achieve the recovery goal. Although no survival/recovery maps are included with this document, it is recommended that location of survival/recovery habitat is spatially described to help mitigate habitat threats and to facilitate actions for meeting the recovery (population and distribution) goals.

Performance indicators provide a way to define and measure progress toward achieving the recovery (population and distribution) goals and objectives. Performance indicators are included with the Recovery Action Table (Table 5; Section 6.2) and explained in Section 6.3.

The target for Pallid Bat is that all important roosts (maternity roosts, hibernacula, and other significant roosts or roosting areas [used by >10 bats]) are secured either through formal protection, such as in a park or with a conservation covenant, or through voluntary stewardship actions with the goals to retain attributes important for the species, and to mitigate threats at the site. Performance indicators in the Recovery Action Table track progress in meeting the target of 100% securement of these roosts. Setting timelines for 100% securement is difficult because much of the Pallid Bat's habitat is on private land and actions are voluntary. Process measures are included to set milestones for recovery.

The interim target for foraging habitat for Pallid Bat is to maintain or increase the amount of suitable foraging habitat for Pallid Bat within 4.5 km of roosts, with the overall target to have 100% of the foraging habitat within 4.5 km of roosts suitable for the species. Performance indicators in the Recovery Action Table track progress in meeting the target of no loss of foraging habitat over the current baseline situation.

To address knowledge gaps about the range of Pallid Bat, the species' ecology and threat impacts to the species, many recovery actions focus on surveys to determine the species' distribution, the locations of summer and winter roosts, occupancy of known roosts, and information about vital rates of the species. Because specific targets for number of individuals have not been established beyond maintaining more than 250 mature individuals in the population, these data will be used to indicate the success of species recovery. Data from surveys will assist in developing a more precise estimate of the population size of the Pallid Bat.

Pallid Bat recovery may have little direct effect on other species or ecological processes, especially since there is no intent to enhance the population(s) above natural carrying capacity. Many species will benefit indirectly from recovery efforts. Other SARA-listed bats, such as Spotted Bat (Euderma maculatum; Special Concern), Little Brown Myotis (Endangered), and Fringed Myotis (Myotis thysanodes; Data Deficient) should be monitored and opportunistically studied when conducting surveys or research on Pallid Bat. Protecting foraging habitats will benefit many other SARA-listed species, such as the Western Rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus), Desert Nightsnake (Hypsiglena chlorophaea), Great Basin Gophersnake (Pituophis catenifer deserticola), Western Tiger Salamander (Ambystoma mavortium), Great Basin Spadefoot (Spea intermontana), Behr's Hairstreak (Satyrium behrii), and American Badger (Taxidea taxus). Protecting roosting habitat for the species could benefit other cliff-roosting bat species, such as Spotted Bat, Little Brown Myotis, and Fringed Myotis, as well as other cliff-roosting species. Recovery planning activities for Pallid Bat will be implemented with consideration for all co-occurring species at risk, such that no negative impacts occur to these species or their habitats.

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