Coeur d’Alene Salamander (Plethodon idahoensis): COSEWIC assessment and status report 2021

Official title: COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Coeur d’Alene Salamander (Plethodon idahoensis) in Canada

Special concern 2021

COSEWIC assessment summary

Assessment summary – April 2021

Common name: Coeur d’Alene Salamander

Scientific name: Plethodon idahoensis

Status: Special Concern

Reason for designation: This terrestrial salamander has a restricted Canadian range in southeastern British Columbia, which represents about 40% of the species’ global distribution. It is highly dependent on moist, shaded, rocky habitats, often along fast-flowing streams and seepages scattered across the otherwise dry landscape. Specialized habitat requirements and life history, including low reproductive rate, increase the salamanders’ vulnerability to habitat disturbance. New information includes increased knowledge of distribution, establishment of Wildlife Habitat Areas to mitigate logging impacts, and clarification of threats. Climate change vulnerability analyses indicate that it is highly vulnerable to increased frequency and intensity of droughts. Population trends remain unknown. The species may become Threatened if threats from various sources, including road traffic, development and maintenance, are not adequately monitored and mitigated.

Occurrence: British Columbia

Status history: Designated Special Concern in April 1998. Status re-examined and confirmed in November 2001, November 2007 and May 2021.

COSEWIC executive summary

Coeur d’Alene Salamander

Plethodon idahoensis

Wildlife species description and significance

Coeur d'Alene Salamander (Plethodon idahoensis) is a terrestrial-breeding, lungless salamander (family Plethodontidae). It is dark brown to black, with light flecking on the sides and legs with an orange, yellow, or occasionally red dorsal stripe. Terrestrial salamanders can be locally abundant and are an integral part of the food web, both as invertebrate predators and as prey.

Distribution

Coeur d'Alene Salamander is restricted to a small portion of the western Cordillera of North America, largely within the northeast portion of the Columbia River drainage, including southeastern British Columbia, Canada, and Montana and Idaho, United States. Approximately 40% of the global range is in Canada, restricted to the southern Columbia Mountains (in the Monashee, Selkirk, and Purcell mountain ranges), in the lower Columbia River drainage (east of the lower Kettle River), and in the eastern edge of the South Thompson River drainage. Increased search effort has more than doubled the known range since the previous assessment; undocumented occurrences probably still exist.

Habitat

Coeur d’Alene Salamander requires moisture to facilitate respiration and protection from desiccation. In British Columbia, the salamanders are associated with incised and fractured bedrock or wet talus near water. Such rocky features appear to be an essential habitat characteristic. There has been an unknown amount of habitat lost to industry and road construction activities; however, the species does not appear to be limited by habitat at this time.

Biology

Coeur d’Alene Salamanders are relatively long-lived, up to 12 years in captivity, with an estimated generation time of 5 to 7 years. Several factors contribute to a low reproductive rate: late age of first reproduction (at 4^th summer), breeding in alternate years by individual females, and small (4 to 12 eggs) clutch size. There is no aquatic larval stage, and eggs develop directly into small versions of adults. Coeur d’Alene Salamanders spend much of their life in fractured bedrock retreats, an adaptation that, presumably, has allowed them to survive in a climatically harsh mountainous region. Lack of lungs and reliance on moist retreats limit their adaptability to alterations in hydrology and physical structure of their environment.

Population sizes and trends

No attempt has been made to determine Coeur d’Alene Salamander population size or fluctuations through sampling. Most watercourses supporting the species either have not been surveyed or cannot be completely sampled due to difficult topography. The subpopulation size at a portion of one of the 42 occurrences was estimated at 278 individuals; however, several challenges were identified that may affect the accuracy of this estimate. The Canadian population is probably greater than 14,000 mature individuals. The available data suggest that population densities, sex ratios, and age distributions may be relatively stable over time, as with other plethodontid salamanders.

Threats and limiting factors

The two most significant threats to the species are climate change and transportation corridors. Drying of streams and bedrock refuges, shifting climate zones, and the direct effects of increased ambient temperature on this cold-adapted species may pose significant risks in the long term. More than half of the known occurrences are adjacent to highways or other roads and at risk of disturbance from road traffic, and road maintenance and upgrades. Although the apparent proximity to transportation corridors is at least partially due to sampling bias, road-related mortality remains a significant threat to more than half of the known occurrences.

Other threats to the species that are considered to have a low or unknown impact include: mining and quarrying, renewable energy in the form of micro-hydroelectric development, logging, geological events, pollution, and emerging diseases.

Protection, status and ranks

In Canada, Coeur d’Alene Salamander is listed as Special Concern under Schedule 1 (Part 4) of the Species at Risk Act and is an Identified Wildlife Species associated with the Forest and Range Practices Act of British Columbia. Its NatureServe global rank is Apparently Secure. In Idaho and Montana, the ranks for the species are Special Concern and Imperilled, respectively. In British Columbia, it has been ranked as Apparently Secure since 2008.

Technical summary

Plethodon idahoensis

Coeur d’Alene Salamander

Salamandre de Coeur d’Alène

Range of occurrence in Canada (province/territory/ocean): British Columbia

Quantitative analysis

Is the probability of extinction in the wild at least [20% within 20 years or 5 generations whichever is longer up to a maximum of 100 years, or 10% within 100 years]? N/A

Threats (direct, from highest impact to least, as per IUCN threats calculator)

Was a threats calculator completed for this species?

i. IUCN-CMP Threat 11. Climate change and severe weather, medium to low

a. The threat assessment period is relatively short compared to the temporal scale of climate change and there is uncertainty around the magnitude and extent of effects of climate change and habitat thresholds leading to uncertainty around the severity within the assessment period

ii. IUCN-CMP Threat 4. Transportation and service corridors, medium to low

a. There remains uncertainty around the severity of this threat because there are insufficient data to assess the probability of recolonization from sites up- or downstream of road disturbance

iii. IUCN-CMP Threat 7. Natural system modifications, low

iv. IUCN-CMP Threat 3. Energy production and mining, low

v. IUCN-CMP Threat 5. Biological resource use, low

vi. IUCN-CMP Threat 10. Geological events, low

vii. IUCN-CMP Threat 8. Invasive and other problematic species and genes, unknown

viii. IUCN-CMP Threat 9. Pollution, unknown

What additional limiting factors are relevant?

The moist microenvironments required by the species are naturally fragmented, and the physiological constraints limit dispersal.

Low reproductive potential limits the ability of subpopulations to recover from disturbances and stochastic events.

⁺ See Table 3 (Guidelines for modifying status assessment based on rescue effect)

Data sensitive species

Is this a data sensitive species? No

Status history:

COSEWIC:

Designated Special Concern in April 1998. Status re-examined and confirmed in November 2001, November 2007 and May 2021.

Status and reasons for designation:

Status: Special concern

Alpha-numeric codes: Not applicable

Reasons for designation: This terrestrial salamander has a restricted Canadian range in southeastern British Columbia, which represents about 40% of the species’ global distribution. It is highly dependent on moist, shaded, rocky habitats, often along fast-flowing streams and seepages scattered across the otherwise dry landscape. Specialized habitat requirements and life history, including low reproductive rate, increase the salamanders’ vulnerability to habitat disturbance. New information includes increased knowledge of distribution, establishment of Wildlife Habitat Areas to mitigate logging impacts, and clarification of threats. Climate change vulnerability analyses indicate that it is highly vulnerable to increased frequency and intensity of droughts. Population trends remain unknown. The species may become Threatened if threats from various sources, including road traffic, development and maintenance, are not adequately monitored and mitigated.

Applicability of criteria

Criterion A (Decline in Total Number of Mature Individuals):

Not applicable. Insufficient data to reliably infer, project, or suspect population trends.

Criterion B (Small Distribution Range and Decline or Fluctuation):

Not applicable. IAO of 212 km² is within the range for Endangered, but population is not severely fragmented, occurs at >10 locations, and does not experience extreme fluctuations although the area, extent, and quality of habitat are projected to continue to decline.

Criterion C (Small and Declining Number of Mature Individuals):

Not applicable. Number of mature individuals is at least 14,000, exceeding thresholds.

Criterion D (Very Small or Restricted Population):

Not applicable. The population is not very small or restricted.

Criterion E (Quantitative Analysis):

Not applicable. Analysis not conducted.

Preface

Since the previous status assessment (COSEWIC 2007), inventory work has resulted in 13 additional occurrences for Coeur d’Alene Salamander, bringing the total number of known occurrences in British Columbia to 42, doubling both the extent of occurrence and index of area of occupancy. Three occurrences have been documented outside the Columbia River drainage in the Fraser River drainage (South Thompson watershed), which has been subjected to relatively little search effort. Abundance has not been estimated at any of the occurrences, or for the population as a whole, but a mark-recapture study was able to estimate the number of individuals utilizing one habitat area (Ohanjanian and Beaucher 2000). A Management Plan for Coeur d’Alene Salamander (Plethodon idahoensis) in Canada was published in 2017 (ECCC 2017).

COSEWIC history

The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) was created in 1977 as a result of a recommendation at the Federal-Provincial Wildlife Conference held in 1976. It arose from the need for a single, official, scientifically sound, national listing of wildlife species at risk. In 1978, COSEWIC designated its first species and produced its first list of Canadian species at risk. Species designated at meetings of the full committee are added to the list. On June 5, 2003, the Species at Risk Act (SARA) was proclaimed. SARA establishes COSEWIC as an advisory body ensuring that species will continue to be assessed under a rigorous and independent scientific process.

COSEWIC mandate

The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) assesses the national status of wild species, subspecies, varieties, or other designatable units that are considered to be at risk in Canada. Designations are made on native species for the following taxonomic groups: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, arthropods, molluscs, vascular plants, mosses, and lichens.

COSEWIC membership

COSEWIC comprises members from each provincial and territorial government wildlife agency, four federal entities (Canadian Wildlife Service, Parks Canada Agency, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, and the Federal Biodiversity Information Partnership, chaired by the Canadian Museum of Nature), three non-government science members and the co-chairs of the species specialist subcommittees and the Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge subcommittee. The Committee meets to consider status reports on candidate species.

Definitions (2021)

Wildlife Species

A species, subspecies, variety, or geographically or genetically distinct population of animal, plant or other organism, other than a bacterium or virus, that is wild by nature and is either native to Canada or has extended its range into Canada without human intervention and has been present in Canada for at least 50 years.

Extinct (X)

A wildlife species that no longer exists.

Extirpated (XT)

A wildlife species no longer existing in the wild in Canada, but occurring elsewhere.

Endangered (E)

A wildlife species facing imminent extirpation or extinction.

Threatened (T)

A wildlife species likely to become endangered if limiting factors are not reversed.

Special Concern (SC)*

A wildlife species that may become a threatened or an endangered species because of a combination of biological characteristics and identified threats.

Not at Risk (NAR)**

A wildlife species that has been evaluated and found to be not at risk of extinction given the current circumstances.

Data Deficient (DD)***

A category that applies when the available information is insufficient (a) to resolve a species’ eligibility for assessment or (b) to permit an assessment of the species’ risk of extinction.

* Formerly described as “Vulnerable” from 1990 to 1999, or “Rare” prior to 1990.

** Formerly described as “Not In Any Category”, or “No Designation Required.”

*** Formerly described as “Indeterminate” from 1994 to 1999 or “ISIBD” (insufficient scientific information on which to base a designation) prior to 1994. Definition of the (DD) category revised in 2006.

The Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment and Climate Change Canada, provides full administrative and financial support to the COSEWIC Secretariat.

Wildlife species description and significance

Name and classification

Class: Amphibia

Order: Caudata

Family: Plethodontidae

Genus: Plethodon

Species: P. idahoensis

English common name: Coeur d’Alene Salamander

French common name: Salamandre de Coeur d’Alène

First described by Slater and Slipp (1940), Coeur d’Alene Salamander was subsequently considered to be a subspecies of Van Dyke’s Salamander (Plethodon vandykei idahoensis) (Lowe 1950), or an unnamed geographic group of P. vandykei (Brodie 1970). Subsequent genetic evidence (Wallace 1986; Howard et al. 1993; Carstens et al. 2004, 2005) and morphometric analysis (Wilson and Larsen 1999) corroborated its status as a full species, and it is now recognized as a valid species (Crother 2017). Literature prior to 1990 refers to the species as P. idahoensis, P. vandykei idahoensis, or P. vandykei.

Morphological description

Background body colour is dark brown to black, with light flecking on the sides and legs (Wilson and Ohanjanian 2002). In Canada, dorsal stripe is primarily orange, yellow, or occasionally red (Ohanjanian and Beaucher 2001; Ohanjanian 2004; Larson 2009). The stripe does not extend to the tip of the tail, has irregular edges, and may be interrupted. A yellow throat patch is usually present on the underside of the head. Juveniles are similar to adults in appearance. Females are larger than males (Nussbaum et al. 1983), with a maximum snout-vent length (SVL) of 69 mm recorded from a female north of Creston, British Columbia (Ohanjanian and Beaucher 2001). Recently hatched juveniles average 18 mm SVL (Wilson and Ohanjanian 2002).

Webbed toes, parotoid glands (poison glands on the sides of the head), costal grooves on body, and yellow throat patch distinguish the species from all western Plethodon except P. vandykei. Compared to P. vandykei, P. idahoensis has a broader head, darker pigmentation, broader dorsal stripe, yellow limb bases, and a larger throat patch.

Population spatial structure and variability

Coeur d’Alene Salamander occurs most often along streams, and dispersal along streams is likely to be relatively frequent, but there is potential for spatial population structuring between streams or groups of streams. Plethodontid salamanders seldom disperse across habitats that expose them to heat or dryness and typically exhibit high site fidelity with small home ranges; such ecologically constrained species often exhibit high rates of population divergence, including speciation (Pelletier 2015 and references therein).

Genetic work indicated that Coeur d’Alene Salamander dispersed north into Canada from Pleistocene refugia at a rate averaging around 50 m/year (Carstens et al. 2004). This movement was possible due to the salamanders’ ability to exploit ephemeral habitats of glacial moraines created during glacial retreat. While occurrences have become more isolated in the absence of postglacial landscape features, individuals are capable of dispersing both up- and downstream, and the majority of the population is connected by watercourses within the same watershed; however, the extent to which these connections facilitate dispersal among streams is unknown. Overland dispersal is possible during periods of extended rainfall. Occupied habitat patches are often clustered relatively close together and may be more densely distributed than currently documented, all of which facilitates at least occasional gene transfer. However, further study is required as several studies in Idaho and Montana have found indications of north to south population structure (Carstens and Richards 2007; Carstens et al. 2009; Shafer et al. 2010; Pelletier and Carstens 2014; Pelletier et al. 2015). Lack of gene flow between occurrences as close as 40 km may result in genetic divergence among the P. vandykei / idahoensis species complex (Wallace 1986). No genetic studies have been conducted in British Columbia’s portion of the range.

Designatable units

The Canadian population of Coeur d’Alene Salamander is considered a single designatable unit: there are no recognized varieties or subspecies in Canada, and no evidence for discreteness or evolutionary significance of subpopulations, which are poorly defined.

Special significance

Salamanders are recognized as regulators of food webs and contribute to ecosystem stability: as mid-level vertebrate predators they contribute to species diversity and ecosystem processes and to soil dynamics, and supply stores of energy and nutrients for higher level predators (Davic and Welsh 2004). The significance of Coeur d’Alene Salamander’s contributions has not been specifically studied. This species is part of Canadian ecosystems that are important to Indigenous people, who recognize the interconnectedness of all species within the ecosystem. No specific information for this species was available.

Distribution

Global range

Coeur d’Alene Salamander is restricted to areas west of the Rocky Mountains of North America, largely within the northeast portion of the Columbia River drainage including southeastern British Columbia, northwestern Montana, and northern Idaho (Figure 1). In Montana, the southern limits of its range are in the Bitterroot River drainage (MNHP 2019). In Idaho, it is found south to the Selway River drainage (IDFG 2019).

Figure 1. Approximate global distribution of Coeur d’Alene Salamander (based on known occurrences as of 2019). Prepared by Sydney Allen (COSEWIC Secretariat).

Canadian range

Approximately 40% of the global range of Coeur d’Alene Salamander is in Canada, where it has been found within the southern Columbia Mountains (in the Monashee, Selkirk, and Purcell mountain ranges), spread throughout the Columbia River drainage (east of the Kettle River), and in the eastern edge of the South Thompson River drainage (Figure 2; ECCC, 2017; B.C. CDC 2019a). Within Canada, the species is predominantly found in the Interior Cedar–Hemlock biogeoclimatic zone (very dry to very wet and warm to cool subzones) with a few occurrences in the Montane Spruce (dry warm) zone and one in Interior Douglas-fir (very dry hot) zone.

Figure 2. Distribution of occurrences of Coeur d’Alene Salamander in Canada (data from 1981 to 2018), showing extent of occurrence and index of area of occupancy. Prepared by Sydney Allen (COSEWIC Secretariat).

Records exist from 42 occurrences (representing 76 sites, see Table 1) within 7 watersheds: Lower Kootenay (along Kootenay Lake, and the Duncan Reservoir); Central Kootenay (Goat River, Moyie River, and St. Mary River drainages); Kettle (Pend d’Oreille River); Central Columbia and Upper Columbia (Upper and Lower Arrow Lake), Revelstoke (the east shore of Columbia River north and south of Revelstoke, along the Illecillewaet River), McNaughton Lake-Columbia Reach (Glacier National Park, Beaver River tributary) and the South Thompson (Eagle River) (ECCC 2017). An occurrence includes all records of the species within 1 km and may contain several sites. The largest concentration of occurrences is along on the eastern shore of Kootenay Lake, continuing north along the east shore of the Duncan Reservoir and around Revelstoke extending north, east and west.

The northernmost limit of the species’ range is along a small tributary of the Columbia River, ca. 80 km north of Revelstoke (Ohanjanian 2003a). The most southerly occurrence is south of Christina Lake, near the United States border on crown land from 1900 to 2020^{Footnote 1}. The distance between these two points is approximately 300 km. The most easterly occurrence is 16 km south of Kimberley on a tributary of the Kootenay River (Ohanjanian 2003a). The most westerly occurrence is in Eagle River Provincial Park, ca. 30 km west of Revelstoke.

Coeur d’Alene Salamander was first discovered in British Columbia in 1984 and has since been documented at an increasing number of occurrences: 10 by 1998, 29 by 2007, and 42 by 2020 (Figure 3; Holmberg et al. 1984 in Ohanjanian 2003a; Dupuis and Ohanjanian 1998; COSEWIC 2007; ECCC 2017). This increase represents expanded search effort and awareness of the species and not a range expansion.

Figure 3. Sites where Coeur d’Alene Salamander has been found in Canada, identified by first year of detection, showing an increase in the known range and drainages where the species has been detected over time. McNaughton Lake-Columbia Reach and Kettle watersheds are in the Columbia drainage; South Thompson watershed is in the Fraser River drainage. Prepared by Sydney Allen (COSEWIC Secretariat).

Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy

The extent of occurrence (EOO) for Coeur d’Alene Salamander in British Columbia, calculated using the minimum convex polygon method and encompassing all known occurrences as of 2020, is 35,843 km² (Figure 2). The index of area of occupancy (IAO), calculated based on 2 km x 2 km grid cells, is 212 km² (Figure 2). COSEWIC (2007) reported an EOO of 17,000 km² and IAO of 100 km². The known EOO and IAO have increased 111% and 112%, respectively, due to increased search effort. The IAO value, in particular, is an underestimate and is expected to increase with expanded survey efforts.

Search effort

Coeur d’Alene Salamander has been the subject of numerous directed surveys since 1995 and has been included in several general amphibian surveys (Table 1). While the specific details vary from study to study, surveys generally consisted of non-destructive, visual scanning of the ground at night in wet areas around waterfalls, seepages and stream banks, and along roads. British Columbia Species Inventory Web Explorer (2019) includes several other general amphibian surveys from the Thompson, Okanagan, and Kootenay regions; however, these inventories generally focused on wetlands where the potential for detection of Coeur d’Alene Salamander is lower than directed surveys in suitable habitat (e.g., several years of general amphibian inventory in Kinbasket and Arrow Lakes reservoirs produced one detection compared to several new occupied sites discovered annually by targeted inventory; Hawkes and Tuttle 2010).

More than 384 person-hours have been spent conducting nocturnal surveys at over 290 survey sites with detections at 76 survey sites. The vast majority of occurrences are within several hundred metres of a roadway which reflects a strong bias towards surveys near roads and trails due to access difficulties. Throughout the species’ range, dozens of additional watercourses with potential Coeur d’Alene Salamander habitat have not been surveyed due to the steep topography and difficulty of access. Coeur d’Alene Salamander has frequently been found on surveys upstream or downstream of known occurrences (Ohanjanian 2001a, 2003a; Larson 2009). These data suggest that the total number of known occurrences is an underestimate of the true abundance. Since the previous status report, the species has been discovered in two additional watersheds within the Columbia drainage (McNaughton Lake-Columbia Reach and Kettle) and within the Fraser River drainage (South Thompson watershed), which has been subjected to little or no survey effort targeting this species.

A B.C. Conservation Data Centre report (B.C. CDC 2016) suggested that less than 10% of the suitable habitat has been searched for the species, based on personal communication from P. Ohanjanian in 2007. However, no habitat suitability mapping is available to accurately quantify the proportion of unsurveyed habitat.

Habitat

Habitat requirements

Coeur d’Alene Salamander is a lungless salamander that requires moisture to facilitate respiration and for protection from desiccation (Spotila 1972). In British Columbia, the species is associated with seeps, rock walls with water flowing over them, waterfall splash zones, streamside habitats with exposed bedrock, caves, avalanche paths, and wet talus (layers of rock) (Ohanjanian 2003a; Larson 2009). These habitats often occur in steep terrain where the bedrock is near the surface and/or the talus has fallen down a slope.

Fractured bedrock or talus in conjunction with water appears to be an essential habitat characteristic (Wilson and Larsen 1988; Nussbaum et al. 1993; Ohanjanian 1998, 2003a; Larson 2009). Coeur d’Alene Salamanders may spend up to seven months of the year inactive underground in moist interstitial spaces between rocks (Cassirer et al. 1994). These underground refugia provide protection from freezing in winter and from desiccation in summer. Interstitial spaces, conduits of moisture below the surface, and portals from this subterranean environment to the surface are all important and potentially limiting features of the habitat, but the specific structure and extent of underground retreats remain unknown. No egg masses have been found in the wild; however, it is likely that these are deposited in underground crevices.

Coeur d’Alene Salamander does not appear to exhibit a specific or strong preference regarding the character of surrounding habitats as vegetation at occurrences ranges from sparse (at rock walls with limited vegetation) to dense deciduous shrubs (e.g., in avalanche paths) to mixed coniferous forest of varying ages (ECCC 2017). However, while a lack of vegetation does not necessarily restrict the species, Larson (2009) demonstrated that occupancy along streams and in terrestrial habitat is positively associated with the presence of shrub, grass, and forb cover of the stream bank, as well as with litter, moss, and boulders and cobbles. Forested land adjacent to specific habitat features such as caves and rock walls may be used for foraging, mating, and travel.

Habitat trends

Moist habitats containing suitable refugia for Coeur d’Alene Salamanders are naturally confined to distinct areas or patches within the surrounding landscape. Further, there have likely been past declines in habitat due to industrial activity and the building, improvement, and maintenance of roads. Some occurrences are partly in highway rights-of-ways, and the species occupies some streams that are suitable for run-of-river micro-hydroelectric generation (see Figure 4 for potential run-of-river hydro sites and major highways). Other resource extraction activities such as mining and logging are also likely to affect habitat availability. The species has shown some ability to survive in, and recolonize disturbed habitat including road rights-of-ways, dam sites, and, rarely, old mines (ECCC 2017; NatureServe 2019). The magnitude of previous losses is unknown; however, the species does not appear to be limited by habitat at this time as abundant potential habitat remains among known occurrences (ECCC 2017). The expected effects of climate change are likely to reduce habitat availability within the current range of the species (Appendix 1; see Threats and Limiting Factors).

Figure 4. Coeur d’Alene Salamander occurrences within Wildlife Habitat Areas, parks, and on other lands in relation to major roads and potential run-of-river hydro projects. “No known protection” refers to sites outside protected areas and WHAs; management and planning specific to this species may be required under Government Actions Regulations. Approximately 60% of occurrences are within 30 m of a highway or road. Of 160 potential run-of-river sites, 12 are on or within 3 km from watercourses that are known to support the salamander. Map prepared by Sydney Allen (COSEWIC Secretariat).

Biology

Little is known about the biology of Coeur d’Alene Salamander, and information from a variety of sources including those from the United States is summarized below. Wilson and Ohanjanian (2002) provided an overview of literature regarding the species.

Life cycle and reproduction

Coeur d’Alene Salamander is relatively long-lived, up to 12 years in captivity (A. Wilson pers. comm. cited in ECCC 2017). Several factors contribute to a low reproductive rate of the species: sexual maturity occurs relatively late, in the fourth summer of life at SVL >44 mm for males and >46 mm for females (Lynch 1984; Cassirer et al. 1994; Wilson and Ohanjanian 2002); females probably breed in alternate years (Nussbaum et al. 1983); and clutch sizes are small (mean: 6.7 ovarian eggs/female; range: 4 to12 in northern Idaho) (Nussbaum et al. 1983). Larson et al. (1998) described an egg mass, consisting of seven eggs, laid in captivity. Females are highly secretive during egg-laying, and no nests have been found in the wild. It is thought that the female attends the nest and broods the eggs as in other plethodontids (Nussbaum et al. 1983; Truath et al. 2006). There is no aquatic larval stage; the development is direct from eggs to juveniles that have a smaller, yet adult-like form. Juveniles probably hatch in fall.

No information is available on annual survivorship, and thus generation time cannot be calculated accurately. Based on age at first reproduction and maximum longevity, generation time is approximately between 5 and 7 years (COSEWIC 2007; ECCC 2017).

Physiology and adaptability

Details of Coeur d’Alene Salamander’s physiological requirements have not been studied, but like other plethodontids it requires moist microenvironments to facilitate exchange of respiratory gases through the skin and is prone to water loss through evaporation (Spotila 1972; Grover 1998). The species is active on the surface at temperatures lower than other species of plethodontids, one individual was observed near Kimberley at air temperature of 3.8^oC (Ohanjanian 2003b). In the mountainous regions of southeastern British Columbia, northwestern Montana, and northern Idaho, ambient temperatures are generally low at the times of year when rains provide adequate moisture for surface activities. The species has been consistently observed on the surface in summer during rainy weather and at waterfalls that maintain a moist environment (Nussbaum et al. 1983; Ohanjanian 2001a).

Use of rocky retreats, where Coeur d’Alene Salamander spend much of their life, is an adaptation that, presumably, has allowed it to survive in a climatically harsh mountainous region subjected to recurrent wildfires. Due to the physiological constraints described above, Coeur d’Alene Salamander is sensitive to alterations in hydrology and the physical structure of its environment.

Movements, dispersal, and migration

Coeur d’Alene Salamanders are relatively sedentary, but small-scale annual movements away from summer/fall habitat have been documented, including movements up to 52.8 m away from a capture point and then back again over several years (Ohanjanian 2001b in COSEWIC 2007; Ohanjanian and Beaucher 2001, 2003). Ohanjanian and Beaucher (2001) noted that 12 of 15 recaptures (of 79 individuals) were in the same area with greatest distance between capture sites of 8.1 m; two individuals had moved more than 20 m to nearby habitat areas. In 2003, eight individuals were recaptured with a mean movement of 6.6 m between capture sites; the maximum movement was 21.7 m (Ohanjanian and Beaucher 2003).

Information on dispersal by Coeur d’Alene Salamander along and among tributaries is limited. The mechanisms for dispersal may be passive, for example individuals being carried downstream by runoff or flood events, or active, with individuals walking upstream, downstream, or laterally away from one watercourse to another. The species has been detected at multiple points on the same watercourse (Ohanjanian 2001a, 2003a; Larson 2009), indicating dispersal up and downstream. The requirement for moisture constrains the timing and distances travelled laterally between watercourses.

Interspecific interactions

No studies of the food habits of Coeur d’Alene Salamander have been carried out in British Columbia. COSEWIC (2007) provided a review of food habits from other parts of the range, where the species feeds on an array of invertebrates including adult insects, aquatic larval insects, spiders, worms, and slugs.

Predation by American Robin (Turdus migratorius) has been recorded (Wilson and Simon 1985). Other, potential predators of salamanders include small mammals, such as Bushy-tailed Woodrat (Neotoma cinerea), garter snakes (Thamnophis species), and various large invertebrates (COSEWIC 2007).

Population sizes and trends

Sampling effort and methods

No attempt has been made to determine Coeur d’Alene Salamander population size or trends. Detection rates can be extremely variable between surveys (e.g., see Appendix 2, no./10 min of search for occurrences 2, 19a, 22, and 35), which makes calculating any estimate of abundance difficult. Two attempts to determine subpopulation size by mark-recapture are discussed below.

Abundance

Mark-recapture studies have met with mixed results. Larson (2009) could not estimate subpopulation size due to low recapture rates (10 recaptures of 253 tagged salamanders in 2006). Ohanjanian and Beaucher (2000) were able to calculate an estimate of 278 (SE = 36.5, CI = 221 to 362) individuals at one site (a portion of one occurrence), based on captures of 79 individuals of which 67% were adults. However, a very low recapture rate and various unknowns about Coeur d’Alene Salamander’s behaviour were challenges. In all models, the lower confidence interval was over 100 and the upper well under 1000 individuals (Ohanjanian and Beaucher 2000). Assuming an average of 278 individuals at each of 76 occupied survey sites (Table 1) provides an estimate of roughly 21,000 individuals, of which 14,000 (67%) are adults. Such an estimate should be used with extreme caution because it is based on a single study that identified several potential biases. For comparison, a population estimate adjusted to the presumed percentage of the population near the surface and available for capture at any one time (21% as used in COSEWIC 2007) yields 3,400 individuals^{Footnote 2} compared to 2,800 in 2007. Considering the number of additional occurrences and the mark-recapture analysis, the Canadian population is probably greater than 14,000 mature individuals.

Fluctuations and trends

Population trends and fluctuations of Coeur d’Alene Salamander in Canada are unknown. Population densities, sex ratios, and age distributions of other plethodontid species are relatively stable over time, unlike those of many aquatic-breeding amphibians (Hairston 1987; Grover 1998). Several measures suggest that this may also be true for Coeur d’Alene Salamander. Frequency histograms of size classes at three monitored sites revealed that all size classes were present, and size distribution was stable over a 3-year period, suggesting stability (Ohanjanian and Beaucher 2001, 2002, 2003; Ohanjanian 2001a). Adults and juveniles are consistently encountered (Appendix 2).

The population may have been stable in the recent past in undisturbed habitats, but climate change and other threats could cause widespread habitat-related population declines in the future (see Threats and Limiting Factors). Climate change will likely make some current habitat uninhabitable, especially in the south. Additional habitat may become suitable at higher altitudes and north of the current range; however, higher altitude habitat will be less extensive, and the species’ limited dispersal ability will hinder northward dispersal.

Population fragmentation

The possibility of dispersal of the salamanders among streams and stream systems is unstudied. There is no information on the viability of occurrences, and thus whether the population is severely fragmented as per COSEWIC definition (i.e., >50% of the population is in habitat fragments smaller than required for long-term population viability) cannot be assessed with any degree of confidence. However, it seems unlikely that severe fragmentation would apply due to habitat connectivity along stream corridors, nor was it implied in the previous status assessment (COSEWIC 2007).

Rescue effect

Given the species’ physiological constraints and low dispersal ability, rescue from the closest United States populations is unlikely. The species is not believed to be habitat limited in Canada, and salamanders from the United States would presumably be able to survive if they were to arrive. The northernmost occurrence in Idaho is within the same drainage basin and 24 km from the nearest Canadian occurrence. Habitat suitability between these occurrences is unknown. Considering the species’ poor dispersal ability, cross-border dispersal with sufficient frequency to establish a breeding population is unlikely.

Threats and limiting factors

An assessment of threats and limiting factors was undertaken during the production of the Management Plan for Coeur d’Alene Salamander (Plethodon idahoensis) in Canada (ECCC 2017) and was used as the basis of a follow-up assessment conducted in winter 2020 for the development of this status report.

Threats

Coeur d’Alene Salamander is vulnerable to the cumulative effects of various threats, especially Climate change and severe weather, and Transportation and service corridors (Table 2). Threats were assessed following the IUCN-CMP (International Union for the Conservation of Nature – Conservation Measures Partnership) unified threats classification system (see Salafsky et al. 2008 for definitions and Master et al. 2012 for guidelines). The process consists of assessing impacts for each of 11 main categories of threats and their subcategories, based on the scope (proportion of population exposed to the threat over the next 10-year period), severity (predicted population decline within the scope during the next 10 years or 3 generations, whichever is longer), and timing of each threat. The overall threat impact is calculated by taking into account the separate impacts of all threat categories and can be adjusted by the species experts participating in the evaluation. The overall threat impact for Coeur d’Alene Salamander is considered to be “high to medium”, corresponding to an anticipated decline of between 70% and 3% over the next three generation period; the suspected decline is probably closer to the lower end of the range. The wide range reflects lack of data and resulting uncertainties associated with many of the assigned scores.

Table 2. Threat classification table for Coeur d’Alene Salamander in Canada

Species or ecosystem scientific name: Plethodon idahoensis (Coeur d’Alene Salamander)

Element ID: Not applicable

Elcode: Not applicable

Date: 2020-01-20

Assessor(s): Kristiina Ovaska, Tom Herman, Rosana Soares, Conan Webb, Christopher Edge, Sara Ashpole, Nicholas Cairns, Lea Gelling, Jared Maida, Stephen Ben, Lindsay Anderson, Karen Stefanyk

References: COSEWIC draft status report (Nov 2019); Management Plan (ECCC 2017)

Calculated overall threat impact: High Medium

Assigned Overall Threat Impact: BC = High - Medium

Impact Adjustment Reasons: Not applicable

Overall Threat Comments: Generation time: 5-7 years (3 generations: 15-21 years); EOO: 35,843 km² IAO: 212 km².

Classification of Threats adopted from IUCN-CMP, Salafsky et al. (2008).

IUCN-CMP threat 11. Climate change and severe weather (threat impact: medium to low)

The threat of climate change is pervasive throughout the range of Coeur d’Alene Salamander. The ability of Coeur d’Alene Salamander to respond to anticipated changes is uncertain: possible responses include alteration of movements, behavioural changes, and physiological adaptation. Plethodontids may be at increased risk as ectotherms with a relatively limited ability to move and dependence on cool, moist conditions.

Climate modelling indicates that the climate in British Columbia will be characterized by wetter winters, drier summers, and higher temperatures overall (Spittlehouse 2008; Pojar 2010; PCIC 2019). Climate modelling based on Wang et al. (2016) predicts similar trends across Coeur d’Alene Salamander’s Canadian range. In line with Milanovich et al. (2010), seasonal predictions at Coeur d’Alene Salamander occurrences in Canada show effects of climate change from the 2020s onward, with increasing severity through the 2080s (Wang et al. 2016; PCIC 2019; Appendix 1). Expected effects include less precipitation falling as snow but more as rain, and higher winter temperatures (leading to reduced snowpack) and reduced summer rainfall (leading to a decrease in late spring and/or summer water flows), an increase in temperature and length of dry season, and an increase in frost-free days (Wang et al. 2016; PCIC 2019). Overall, the effects of these changes are unknown, but expected to be detrimental to the salamanders.

Habitats are likely to shift both northward and higher in elevation, and it is unknown to what extent Coeur d’Alene Salamanders will be able to track these changes. Modelling by Milanovich et al. (2010) suggests that plethodontid salamander species that are currently distributed at mid- and high elevations (such as Coeur d’Alene Salamanders) may be restricted to upslope areas due to inability to disperse through warmer valley bottoms. Such restrictions place more southern occurrences at greater risk from reduced habitat area (with associated effects on population size and genetic diversity) or a complete loss of their climatic zone (with no climatic “bridge” to enable migration to suitable habitat).

Increased drought and drying of streams and/or subterranean refuges may result in the loss of occurrences where the habitat becomes too dry. In drier areas, such as near Creston, the consequences of climate change may appear sooner than in wetter areas, such as near Revelstoke. Coeur d’Alene Salamander occurrences along ephemeral and low-flow watercourses will be more at risk to changes in hydrology than occurrences in watercourses with more flow.

Temperature extremes may also affect the species. Bernardo and Spotila (2005) found that cold-adapted montane plethodontids appeared to already live at, or near, the limit of their physiological tolerances and showed dramatic metabolic depression when they experienced higher temperatures. The distribution of Coeur d’Alene Salamander extends southward into the United States, but the entire range is in northern areas, and the species is cold-adapted. The species’ ability to take refuge in subterranean retreats will provide some resilience in the face of increased summer temperatures; however, the species’ long-term ability to cope with consistently higher temperatures is uncertain.

Extreme weather events may cause drowning of salamanders or their eggs due to flooding of interstitial refuges. The frequency and severity of storms is expected to increase with warmer, wetter winters, faster spring melt, and higher intensity storm patterns brought about by warmer air masses.

Price and Daust (2016) evaluated the climate sensitivity of 63 species of BC vertebrates. Coeur d'Alene Salamander and Great Basin Spadefoot (Spea intermontana) were the only amphibians with a “High” climate change sensitivity rating. Using a different analysis, a group of University of Toronto Master class students applied the IUCN/NatureServe climate vulnerability index to Coeur d’Alene Salamander in Canada (Ashtarieh et al. 2020). This analysis incorporates three components related to climate change: A. direct exposure, B. indirect exposure, and C. sensitivity and adaptive capacity. The analysis for this species resulted in the ranking of “Extremely Vulnerable”, the highest category. All of the Canadian range of the species was calculated to be exposed to a 2.54-2.84ºC increase in temperature and a 47.13% moisture deficit (in total), by 2050 (component A). Important contributors to indirect exposure included natural and anthropogenic barriers (component B), and those to sensitivity and adaptive capability included limited dispersal and movement ability, physiological thermal and hydrological niches occupied by the salamanders, and disturbance to and features of their physical habitat (component C).

IUCN-CMP threat 4. Transportation and service corridors (threat impact: medium to low)

Coeur d’Alene Salamander has been found clinging to rock walls and venturing onto roads and their shoulders on rainy nights along highway and secondary road corridors throughout their range in British Columbia (Ohanjanian 2003a; Gunson and Larson 2012; Parks Canada Agency 2013). The salamanders are subject to road mortality where occupied streams or seepages intersect roads, as well as to disturbance from road maintenance and construction activities, such as rock scaling, ditch cleaning, culvert repair and replacement, road widening, and blasting. Armouring stream banks with large rocks to control erosion around bridges and culverts could negatively affect the species’ ability to enter underground retreats; conversely, this could enhance habitat complexity for salamanders and provide opportunities for cover while they are on the surface.

Approximately 60% of all known occurrences are within 30 m of a road. However, safety and access issues have created a strong bias towards surveying near roads. Coeur d’Alene Salamander has been found at multiple points on watercourses (Ohanjanian 2001a, 2003a; Larson 2009), and additional occurrences may exist up- or downstream of roads and would provide sources for recolonization, somewhat mitigating road impacts.

IUCN-CMP threat 7. Natural system modifications (threat impact: low)

Threats accrue from impacts of fire, fire suppression, dams, and water management/use. Prescribed and natural burns may remove wooden cover objects along occupied watercourses and could modify habitat over relatively large areas. A massive wildfire could occasionally extirpate a salamander occurrence. Direct mortality is unlikely because the salamanders can retreat to deep rock retreats and spend relatively little time on the surface. However, removal of vegetation during a burn can result in increased erosion, which could bury and infill bedrock refuges. Occasionally a massive, intense wildfire could occur and modify the natural system for some time, eliminating the species from a patch of habitat. The degree to which fire suppression has increased fuel loads and thus the probability and intensity of wildfires is unknown, but it is likely that some massive wildfires would be directly attributable to human activities.

A mixed fire regime existed historically through Coeur d’Alene Salamander’s range (Klenner et al. 2008; Davis et al. 2018; Chavardès 2019). Fire is strongly related to drought probability, and the length and severity of drought at Coeur d'Alene Salamander occurrences is expected to increase under climate chance scenarios, leading to increased frequency and severity of fire (Wang et al. 2016; Davis et al. 2018; Chavardès 2019). Furthermore, increased fire severity is expected due to fire suppression over the last century and an increase in canopy closure and “ladder” fuels (Chavardès 2019). Changes in forest structure and severity of drought may cause historically protected wetter gullies to be vulnerable to fire during more severe summer droughts.

One hundred sixty sites on streams within the Coeur d’Alene Salamander range have been identified as having potential for run-of-river hydroelectric projects to generate power (B.C. Hydro 2000). Twelve potential sites are less than 3 km from known occurrences or near watercourses known to support the species. These projects alter the hydrology by diverting water from the stream and water levels may be lowered, which could lead to desiccation of interstitial spaces and seep habitats. Riparian vegetation and cover can be removed during the construction phase resulting in habitat loss. Salamanders can be flushed into turbines during the operational phase. Further, diminished water flows may also reduce prey items such as aquatic insects. Since 2001, seven run-of-river hydro projects have been developed within the Coeur d’Alene Salamander’s range, none within 10 km of known occurrences (B.C. Hydro 2020). There is currently a moratorium on new applications for the development of run-of-river projects (since August 2018); B.C. Hydro has submitted (March 2019) an application to lift the moratorium (B.C. Hydro 2020). The presence of Coeur d’Alene Salamander has been a major factor in denying approval for at least one run-of-river project (T. Antifeau pers. comm. 2014, cited in ECCC 2017). Large dams near Duncan, Revelstoke, and Kimberley likely have negatively affected Coeur d’Alene Salamander habitat in the past, but these are not expected to have ongoing effects.

IUCN-CMP threat 3. Energy production and mining (threat impact: low)

Hard rock operations could negatively affect Coeur d’Alene Salamanders if their bedrock and talus retreats are destroyed. Although bedrock is not generally disturbed in placer mining operations, spoils could be piled, and this overburden could not only alter habitat structure but also bury salamanders. Extraction of gravel for road building (new sites or reactivation of previous sites) could disturb habitat and kill salamanders during operation of machinery.

Some mining exploration occurred historically in the Creston area, and a small exploration cave with seepage now provides Coeur d’Alene Salamander habitat. There are no known plans for mining near Coeur d’Alene Salamander occurrences, but it remains a possibility in the future. Population level impacts depend on the size of the disturbed area, type of operation, and potential of recolonization from surrounding areas. Recolonization from either above or below on a given watercourse would likely occur over a period of 20 years (or approximately 3 generations) where habitat is continuous and disturbance is relatively small.

IUCN-CMP threat 5. Biological resource use (threat impact: low)

The impact is primarily due to logging. In addition to the potential of direct mortality during harvesting operations, logging activities modify habitat. Ephemeral streams and rock seepages may go unnoticed, and road building and crucial subsurface water may be diverted by blasting, leading to desiccation of downslope habitats. Any alteration of hydrology in the watershed around streams can affect downstream water quantity or quality. Heavy equipment may cause substrate compaction and direct mortality of salamanders (Moorman et al. 2011). Slumping and soil compaction can clog interstitial spaces thus smothering and/or preventing movement of salamanders. The species is vulnerable to vegetation removal that results in higher temperatures and drier moisture regimes as more sunlight reaches the forest floor.

Numerous tree farm licences are in effect and under application within the species’ range, and logging has a cumulative impact on the landscape over decades (Appendix 3). Forty percent of occurrences (17 of 42) are currently within 1 km of current or pending harvest authorities (legal areas cleared by the Ministry of Forests, Lands, and Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development for harvesting purposes), nine of those are designated Wildlife Habitat Areas (WHAs), two are partially designated as WHAs, and one is in a national park (analysis performed using Forest Tenure Harvesting Authority Polygons; Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development, Forest Tenures). Since 1981, 29 occurrences have been within 1 km of cut blocks, and an average of 38% (16 occurrences) per decade have been within 1 km of cut blocks, using a 1 km buffer around occurrences (the number of point occurrences actually within cut blocks is less). In addition, upstream logging may affect water quality and erosion, and 64% (27 occurrences) have cut blocks within their upstream watershed.

Any creeks bearing fish in B.C. are to receive best management practices under the Forest and Range Practices Act (FRPA), but small streams without fish are more vulnerable. Most known salamander occurrences are in parks or within WHAs, where logging activities are modified to protect Coeur d’Alene Salamanders (B.C. 2004). Approximately one third of occurrences (27 of 42) have some form of provincial or federal protection (as of 2020, 21 by WHAs, six by national parks, and one additional site has some protection by a Wildlife Compensation Program). However, because of incomplete knowledge of the species’ distribution, occurrences outside of these areas remain vulnerable. Coeur d’Alene Salamander is listed under section 7 of the FRPA as an Identified Wildlife species subject to management guidelines. Forest Stewardship Plans exist for portions of the range and include protection measures for this species (Canfor 2018; B.C. Timber Sales 2020). Logging is prohibited within WHA core area, but selective logging is permitted within the surrounding management zone. There is uncertainty as to how effective the mitigation measures are and how diligently they are applied by the various forestry companies operating in the area; hence, residual population effects remain. Furthermore, an interaction with climate change is expected as large portions of the northern range are within designated harvest authorities, and climate change may increase the importance of northern habitat for survival as suitable habitat may be lost in southern portions of the Canadian range (Appendix 3).

IUCN-CMP threat 10. Geological events (threat impact: low)

Climate change is predicted to bring more frequent and severe storms and, together with road building and resource extraction, storm activity is expected to increase the occurrence of landslides. Disturbance by debris flows is an ongoing possibility over much of Coeur d’Alene Salamander’s range because of the salamanders’ affinity for steep terrain. Some areas are naturally prone to landslides, while others are made unstable by industrial activity or road building (see Threat 5, Biological Resource Use). Landslides with a high proportion of very fine-grained materials may prevent reoccupation of habitat for many years as rocky retreats become covered. Landslides can create habitat over the long term. The severity of this threat depends on the area of habitat affected, size of the landslide, and site-specific considerations, which generate much uncertainty.

IUCN-CMP threat 8. Invasive and other problematic species and genes (threat impact: unknown)

Chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has been responsible for frog declines around the world (Olson et al. 2013). Bd was detected in only 0.2% of samples across 12 Plethodon species along a 752 km transect in the eastern United States where Bd is known to occur (Muletz et al. 2014). A second fungus, Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans sp. nov., is responsible for declines of Fire Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) in the Netherlands, causing erosive skin disease and rapid mortality (Martel et al. 2013). To date, it has not been detected in North America, but its import and spread are of concern to native salamanders.

Coeur d’Alene Salamander forages along streams and small pools where it could, in theory, pick up fungal spores even though it lacks an aquatic larval stage. Eastern Red-backed Salamanders (Plethodon cinereus) have bacteria on their skin that produce antifungal metabolites that inhibit Bd (Loudon et al. 2014). There are no records of Bd in Coeur d’Alene Salamander, and whether it has similar inhibitors is unknown.

IUCN-CMP threat 9. Pollution (threat impact: unknown)

Plethodontid salamanders respire through their highly permeable skin and are vulnerable to pollution. In silviculture, herbicides are commonly used to reduce competition from deciduous species and promote growth and release of young conifers (Lautenschlager and Sullivan 2002). Salt (or other chemical de-icers) is regularly applied on all major routes in winter and can be detrimental to amphibians (Turtle 2000; Harless et al. 2009). Additional pollutants for consideration include application of magnesium chloride (MgCl) to desiccate gravel road surfaces for dust abatement during road maintenance (Packham pers. comm. 2019).

Limiting factors

Moist microenvironments required by the species are naturally disjunct, and the physiology of Coeur d’Alene Salamander limits dispersal between suitable habitat patches. Both prolonged wet weather and the presence of adequate cover (i.e., subterranean retreats and/or cover objects on the surface) are required for successful dispersal. In the seasonally drier southern portions of the species’ range in British Columbia where the mean summer precipitation is < 200 mm (Braumandl and Curran 1992; ECCC 2020), conditions that typify the landscape between suitable microhabitats limit opportunities for genetic exchange. In the northern portions of the species’ range, for example in the Revelstoke area, opportunities for dispersal, colonization of new habitats, and genetic exchange are greater because mean precipitation is higher (up to 400 mm) in summer (Braumandl and Curran 1992; ECCC 2020). Although data are lacking, the degree of risk from isolation of habitat patches may be less significant in the north compared to the south of the species’ Canadian range.

Reproductive attributes of the species (i.e., age of first reproduction, clutch size, and alternate breeding years) limit Coeur d’Alene Salamander’s overall reproductive capacity and ability for occurrences to recover in response to disturbances and stochastic events.

Number of threat-based locations

Climate change and severe weather, including prolonged droughts and drying of foraging habitats and shelter sites, was assessed as the greatest threat facing Coeur d’Alene Salamander over the next 10-year period and beyond. Although climate patterns simultaneously affect large areas, effects on salamanders probably depend on drainage patterns, availability of below-ground refuges, and overall habitat quality at a finer spatial scale. Therefore, the areas where salamanders may be affected within a relatively short period by a single threatening event are difficult to quantify. If major watersheds where the species occurs are each considered a threat location, there would be 7 locations. A more likely scenario, given habitat heterogeneity, is that each major watershed consists of multiple threat locations.

If each occupied stream or group of sites is considered separately and affected similarly by climate changes, there may be as many as 65 threat locations, with some encompassing more than one site. For example, two Coeur d’Alene sites 200 m apart on a small side tributary would likely be similarly affected by reduced water flow and both may be extirpated before a site within the same occurrence 900 m downstream in the main drainage, which is fed by multiple tributaries. Of the 76 occupied sites (Table 1), those in close proximity (< 500 m to nearest neighbour), where no individual watercourses are identified in hydrographic data, were identified as a single location (e.g., southwest slope of Mt. Revelstoke).

A similar analysis for other potential threats, such as transportation corridors, mining and quarrying, and logging results in a similar upper number of threat locations. While some threats (e.g., crushing, blasting, and highway maintenance) are localized, all Coeur d’Alene Salamander occurrences downstream in the same watershed are at risk from other threats (e.g., water diversion, siltation, pollution, climate-related water flow reduction). Due to the potential for water flow to carry pollutants through several occurrences or to be reduced by diversion, damming, or altered climate, a single small stream (including minor tributaries) may be considered a threat location. In larger drainages where many small streams feed a larger watercourse, occurrences on the same major water course separated by several kilometres may be considered as separate locations.

In conclusion, the number of threat-based locations is uncertain but is most likely >10.

Protection, status and ranks

Legal protection and status

In Canada, Coeur d’Alene Salamander is listed as Special Concern under Schedule 1 (Part 4) of the Species at Risk Act. A Management Plan for Coeur d’Alene Salamander in Canada has been published (ECCC 2017). The management objectives are to clarify the distribution, to monitor (persistence, relative abundance, and age structure), and to initiate assessment and recovery actions if threats or declines are detected: trend monitoring and inventory are currently incomplete.

Individuals are protected under the British Columbia Wildlife Act and cannot be killed, collected, or held in captivity without permit. This act does not protect the species from habitat loss or destruction. Coeur d’Alene Salamander is designated an Identified Wildlife species in British Columbia associated with the provincial Forest and Range Practices Act. As such, resource extraction at WHAs for this species must follow guidelines laid out in the Species Account for Coeur d’Alene Salamander (B.C. 2004). General Wildlife Measures that apply within WHAs and other management areas governed by Government Actions Regulations seek to protect the population from physical disturbance and direct mortality, disruptions of natural flow regimes of watercourses, and removal of rock and stream crossings/road building that fail to control silt and sediments. Guidelines to protect Coeur d’Alene Salamander during highway maintenance activities have been developed and provided to the British Columbia Ministry of Environment (ECCC 2017).

Non-legal status and ranks

The Global Rank of Coeur d’Alene Salamander is G4 (Apparently Secure; NatureServe 2019). The state ranks for the species in Idaho and Montana are S3 (Special Concern) and S2 (Imperilled), respectively (IDFG 2019; Montana Field Guide 2019; NatureServe 2019). The provincial rank in British Columbia is S4 (Apparently Secure; B.C. CDC 2016). The BC Conservation Data Centre changed the rank from S3 to S4 in 2008 based on potential occurrences in unsurveyed areas and the establishment of Wildlife Habitat Areas to minimize logging impacts (B.C. CDC 2019b). However, it was acknowledged that the effectiveness of protection provided by Wildlife Habitat Areas has not been monitored.

Habitat protection and ownership

Of the 42 known occurrences, 27 have some form of provincial or federal protection, the remainder are on private land (5), unknown or mixed tenure land (5), or Crown land with no known protection (5), of which at least one has some non-government protection:

• 21 occurrences have been partially or fully designated WHAs under the British Columbia Forest and Range Practices Act (B.C. 2019)
• 1 occurrence is in Syringa Creek Provincial Park (Dulisse 1999)
• 5 occurrences are in Mount Revelstoke and Glacier National Parks (Larson 2009; Parks Canada Agency 2014)
• 1 occurrence (tenure unknown) is on property managed by the Columbia Basin Fish and Wildlife Compensation Program (COSEWIC 2007)

It should be noted that the presence of the species in a protected area does not necessarily protect it from all threats, such as those related to climate change.

Acknowledgements

The report writer thanks Penny Ohanjanian, who prepared the previous status report (COSEWIC 2007) and the Management Plan for Coeur d’Alene Salamander in British Columbia, both of which provided essential information and formed the basis of the status report and threat assessment. Acknowledgements are extended to all authorities contacted for their time and efforts in contributing to this report. Of particular note are those individuals who helped track down provincial data and reports (Katie Bell, Katrina Stipec, Leah Ramsay, and Lindsay Anderson). Bryce Maxell and Katey Jones provided assistance accessing occurrence data for the species in the United States. Lisa Larson and Pippa Shepherd provided assistance and data for Mount Revelstoke and Glacier National Parks. COSEWIC Amphibians and Reptiles Specialist Subcommittee members provided numerous helpful review comments.

Further acknowledgement is given to Sydney Allen (COSEWIC Secretariat) for developing range maps and calculating extent of occurrence and index of area of occupancy, to Chris Fisher for providing information about an iNaturalist report, and to all the specialists and field assistants who spent countless hours performing field inventories and preparing reports that form the basis of our knowledge of Coeur d’Alene Salamander in Canada. The preparation of this status report is made possible by a host of mentioned and unmentioned people; thank you to everyone for your contributions.

Authorities contacted

Anderson, Lindsay, A/Small Mammal and Herpetofauna Specialist, B.C. Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy, Nelson, B.C (currently Rare and Endangered Species Biologist for FLNRORD, South Region).

Ban, Stephen, B.C. Parks aquatic ecologist, Victoria, British Columbia.

Bell, Katie, A/Resource Information Specialist, Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy, Victoria, B.C.

Gelling, Lea, B.C. Conservation Data Centre, Victoria, British Columbia.

Govindarajulu, Purnima, A/Unit Head, Conservation Science, B.C. Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy, Victoria, British Columbia (currently Unit Head of the Conservation Science section).

Isaac, LeighAnne, biologist, Kimberley, British Columbia (currently Small Mammal and Herpetofauna Specialist for the Government of British Columbia).

Jones, Katey, GIS Analyst III, Idaho Fish and Game, Boise, Idaho.

Larson, Lisa, Ecological Integrity Monitoring Coordinator, Mount Revelstoke and Glacier National Parks, Parks Canada Agency.

Maxell, Bryce, Montana Heritage Program, Helena, Montana.

Millikin, Rhonda L., A/Head population assessment, Canadian Wildlife Service, Delta, British Columbia.

Ohanjanian, Penny, Biologist, retired. Kimberley, British Columbia.

Ramsay, Leah, Program Zoologist, B.C. Conservation Data Centre, Victoria, British Columbia.

Shepherd, Pippa, Ecosystem Scientist III, Parks Canada Agency, Vancouver, British Columbia.

Stipec, Katrina, B.C. Conservation Data Centre, Victoria, British Columbia.

Wilson, Greg, Aquatic Species-at-Risk Specialist, B.C. Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy, Victoria, British Columbia.

Information sources

Adama, D., and P. Ohanjanian. 2005. A survey of western toads, Bufo boreas, and other amphibians in Glacier and Mount Revelstoke National Parks. Parks Canada Agency, Revelstoke, British Columbia. 52 pp.

Ashtarieh, I., D. Castellanos Forero, and F. Kadwa. 2020. Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment for the Coeur d’Alene Salamander (Plethodon idahoensis) in Canada. Report prepared for Course EES1115, Directed Readings in Environmental Science. Unpubl. report prepared for Master’s class (EES 1155, Directed Readings in Environmental Science) under supervision by S. Livingstone and K. Smith, Department of Physical and Environmental Science, University of Toronto, Scarborough, Ontario. 31 pp.

B.C. (Province of British Columbia). 2004. Identified wildlife management strategy. B.C. Ministry of Environment, Victoria, B.C. Strategy (IWMS). Coeur d’Alene Salamander (Plethodon idahoensis). Account and Measures for Managing Identified Wildlife - Accounts V. Original prepared by P. Ohanjanian. Website: http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/frpa/iwms/index.html [accessed October 2019].

B.C. (Province of British Columbia). 2019. Approved Wildlife Habitat Areas. B.C. Ministry of Environment, Victoria, B.C. Website: http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/frpa/iwms/wha.html [accessed October 2019].

B.C. CDC (B.C. Conservation Data Centre). 2016. Conservation Status Report: Plethodon idahoensis. B.C. Minist. of Environment. Website: http://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/eswp/ [accessed November 2019].

B.C. CDC (B.C. Conservation Data Centre). 2019a. B.C. Species and Ecosystems Explorer. B.C. Minist. of Environ. Victoria, British Columbia. Website: http://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/eswp/ [accessed September 2019].

B.C. CDC (B.C. Conservation Data Centre). 2019b. Archive of changes: Animal List Changes 2008. Website: https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/plants-animals-ecosystems/conservation-data-centre/explore-cdc-data/conservation-data-centre-updates/archive-changes [accessed November 2019].

B.C. Hydro. 2000. Inventory of Undeveloped Opportunities at Potential Micro Hydro Sites in BC. Sigma Engineering Ltd. BC Hydro and Power Authority. 76 pp.

B.C. Hydro. 2020. Standing offer program. Website: https://www.bchydro.com/work-with-us/selling-clean-energy/standing-offer-program.html [accessed April 2020].

B.C. Timber Sales. 2020. Forest Stewardship Plans, BC Timber Sales. Website: https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/forestry/bc-timber-sales/fsp [accessed May 2020].

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Biographical summary of report writer

Conan Webb has 18 years of experience as a field ecologist in species and ecosystems at risk stewardship and restoration projects in the Coastal Douglas-fir zone. In 2005, he graduated from the University of Victoria with B.Sc. in Biology (focusing on botany and plant ecology). He worked with Parks Canada for 13 years on species and ecosystem at risk restoration projects and on the production of two dozen recovery strategies for species at risk. As a consultant he continues to work with species and ecosystems at risk mapping rare element occurrences, providing assessments and recommendations on developments, and mentoring young people in nature connection activities.

Collections examined

No specimens were examined, but the databases of the following persons and institutions were queried for records of Coeur d’Alene Salamander from British Columbia:

Arnold S (2015). Oregon State University Herpetological Collection. Oregon State University. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/ckagzq accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Blackburn D, Brown W (2019). University of Florida Herpetology. Florida Museum of Natural History. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/vw3dvj accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Bloom D, Spencer C (2016). MPM Herpetology. Version 10.1. Milwaukee Public Museum. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/ef6frs accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Braker E (2019). UCM Amphibian and Reptile Collection (Arctos). University of Colorado Museum of Natural History. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/1llmgl accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Dickey D (2016). AMNH Herpetology Collections. American Museum of Natural History. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/jfkgyh accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Dillman C (2018). CUMV Amphibian and Reptile Collection. Version 25.18. Cornell University Museum of Vertebrates. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/emivh3 accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Feeney R (2019). LACM Vertebrate Collection. Version 18.6. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/77rmwd accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Grant S, Resetar A (2019). Field Museum of Natural History (Zoology) Amphibian and Reptile Collection. Version 12.7. Field Museum. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/u2pzhj accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Harvard University M, Morris P J (2019). Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. Version 162.175. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/p5rupv accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Illinois Natural History Survey. Herps Specimens. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/74ijg4 accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

iNaturalist.org (2019). iNaturalist Research-grade Observations. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/ab3s5x accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

International Barcode of Life Consortium, The (2016). International Barcode of Life project (iBOL). Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/inygc6 accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Klenner, W., R. Walton, A. Arsenault, and L. Kremsater. 2008. Dry forests in the southern interior of British Columbia: historic disturbances and implications for restoration and management. Forest Ecology and Management 256:1711-1722.

Khidas K, Shorthouse D (2019). Canadian Museum of Nature Amphibian and Reptile Collection. Version 1.42. Canadian Museum of Nature. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/hglsas accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Kutner L (2019). NatureServe Network Species Occurrence Data. Version 8.4. NatureServe. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/lysaex accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Orrell T (2019). NMNH Extant Specimen Records. Version 1.23. National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/hnhrg3 accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Scheinberg L, Fong J (2019). CAS Herpetology (HERP). Version 33.14. California Academy of Sciences. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/bvoyqy accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Shugart G (2016). PSM Vertebrates Collection. Version 8.1. James R. Slater Museum of Natural History. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/3oaz5o accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Spencer C (2016). UTA Herpetology. Version 8.1. University of Texas-Arlington. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/mlehrb accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Spencer C (2019). MVZ Herp Collection (Arctos). Version 36.30. Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/pi1mts accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Wheeler E, MacIntosh H (2019). Royal BC Museum - Herpetology Collection. Royal British Columbia Museum. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.5886/c9s8bp accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-10-15.

Appendix 1: Climate change modelling

The latitude and longitude of all Coeur d’Alene Salamander survey sites with detections in Canada were used with the climate model developed by Wang et al. (2016) to assess average expected seasonal changes (_wt=winter, _sp=spring, _sm=summer, _at=autumn) in temperature (Tave), precipitation (PPT), and snow pack (PAS) under various climate change scenarios (rcp26, rcp45, and rcp85). The averages below represent the average of 8 different climate models: CanESM2, 13GCM-Ensemble, 15GCM-Ensemble, ACCESS1-0, CCSM4, CESM1-CAM5, CNRM-CM5, and HadGEM2-ES. There is general agreement on overall trends across all models with differences in degree of predicted change.

Appendix 2: Survey data from studies targeting Coeur d’Alene Salamander in British Columbia.

Surveys have been assigned to numbered occurrences based on proximity (i.e., surveys within 1 km of each other are considered to be the same occurrence as per the default NatureServe occurrence separation guidelines). Occurrence numbers are assigned based on date of first observation and each occurrence may be divided into one or more sites when separate surveys were undertaken that did not encompass the entire occurrence. Only a subset of data has been included here for occurrence 8 due to the volume and variety of surveys. NR = data not recorded or reported in the sources available. - = no data available or could not be calculated due to missing data. ^* = report could not be obtained.

Appendix 3: Distribution of logging activity in relation to Coeur d’Alene Salamander occurrences.

Extent of previous, current, and planned logging within Coeur d’Alene Salamander range. Harvested areas of BC indicating harvested cut block boundaries on crown land from 1900 to 2020^{Footnote 3}, planned harvest blocks^{Footnote 4}, and harvesting authority polygons (active and pending legal areas cleared by the Ministry of Forests, Lands, and Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development for harvesting purposes)^{Footnote 5}. NB clearing activities on private land are not included.

Prepared by Sydney Allen (COSEWIC Secretariat).